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Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is described as a function of gaseous sulfuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites. Here we introduce a new nucleation parameter including ozone and water vapor concentrations as well as UV-B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. Applying this new parameter to field studies conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites it is found capable to predict the occurrence of nucleation events and their seasonal and annual variation indicating a significant role of organics. Extrapolation to possible future conditions of ozone, water vapor and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in nucleation event number.
Atmospheric new particle formation is a general phenomenon observed over coniferous forests. So far nucleation is either parameterised as a function of gaseous sulphuric acid concentration only, which is unable to explain the observed seasonality of nucleation events at different measurement sites, or as a function of sulphuric acid and organic molecules. Here we introduce different nucleation parameters based on the interaction of sulphuric acid and terpene oxidation products and elucidate the individual importance. They include basic trace gas and meteorological measurements such as ozone and water vapour concentrations, temperature (for terpene emission) and UV B radiation as a proxy for OH radical formation. We apply these new parameters to field studies conducted at conducted at Finnish and German measurement sites and compare these to nucleation observations on a daily and annual scale. General agreement was found, although the specific compounds responsible for the nucleation process remain speculative. This can be interpreted as follows: During cooler seasons the emission of biogenic terpenes and the OH availability limits the new particle formation while towards warmer seasons the ratio of ozone and water vapour concentration seems to dominate the general behaviour. Therefore, organics seem to support ambient nucleation besides sulphuric acid or an OH-related compound. Using these nucleation parameters to extrapolate the current conditions to prognosed future concentrations of ozone, water vapour and organic concentrations leads to a significant potential increase in the nucleation event number.
A new, two-channel instrument for simultaneous NO3 and N2O5 monitoring was used to make the first comprehensive set of nocturnal NOx measurements (NO, NO2, NO3 and N2O5) at the Taunus Observatory, a rural mountain site (Kleiner Feldberg) in South-western Germany. In May 2008, NO3 and N2O5 mixing ratios were well above the instrumental detection limit (a few ppt) on all nights of the campaign and were characterised by large variability. The concentrations of NO3, N2O5 and NO2 were consistent with the equilibrium constant, K2, defining the rates of formation and thermal dissociation of N2O5. A steady-state lifetime analysis is consistent with the loss of nocturnal NOx being dominated by the reaction of NO3 with volatile organic compounds in this forested region, with N2O5 uptake to aerosols of secondary importance. Analysis of a limited dataset obtained at high relative humidity indicated that the loss of N2O5 by reaction with water vapour is less efficient (>factor 3) than derived using laboratory kinetic data. The fraction of NOx present as NO3 and N2O5 reached ~20% on some nights, with night-time losses of NOx competing with daytime losses.
Fractional release factors of long-lived halogenated organic compounds in the tropical stratosphere
(2010)
Fractional release factors (FRFs) of organic trace gases are time-independent quantities that influence the calculation of Global Warming Potentials and Ozone Depletion Potentials. We present the first set of vertically resolved FRFs for 15 long-lived halocarbons in the tropical stratosphere up to 34 km altitude. They were calculated from measurements on air samples collected on board balloons and a high altitude aircraft. We compare the derived dependencies of FRFs on the mean stratospheric transit times (the so-called mean ages of air) with similarly derived FRFs originating from measurements at higher latitudes and find significant differences. Moreover a comparison with averaged FRFs currently used by the World Meteorological Organisation revealed the limitations of these measures due to their observed vertical and latitudinal variability. The presented data set could be used to improve future ozone level and climate projections.
We synthesised observations of total particle number (CN) concentration from 36 sites around the world. We found that annual mean CN concentrations are typically 300–2000 cm -3 in the marine boundary layer and free troposphere (FT) and 1000–10 000 cm -3 in the continental boundary layer (BL). Many sites exhibit pronounced seasonality with summer time concentrations a factor of 2–10 greater than wintertime concentrations. We used these CN observations to evaluate primary and secondary sources of particle number in a global aerosol microphysics model. We found that emissions of primary particles can reasonably reproduce the spatial pattern of observed CN concentration (R2=0.46) but fail to explain the observed seasonal cycle (R2=0.1). The modeled CN concentration in the FT was biased low (normalised mean bias, NMB=& -88%) unless a secondary source of particles was included, for example from binary homogeneous nucleation of sulfuric acid and water (NMB= -25%). Simulated CN concentrations in the continental BL were also biased low (NMB= -74%) unless the number emission of anthropogenic primary particles was increased or a mechanism that results in particle formation in the BL was included. We ran a number of simulations where we included an empirical BL nucleation mechanism either using the activation-type mechanism (nucleation rate, J, proportional to gas-phase sulfuric acid concentration to the power one) or kinetic-type mechanism (J proportional to sulfuric acid to the power two) with a range of nucleation coefficients. We found that the seasonal CN cycle observed at continental BL sites was better simulated by BL particle formation (R2=0.3) than by increasing the number emission from primary anthropogenic sources (R2=0.18). The nucleation constants that resulted in best overall match between model and observed CN concentrations were consistent with values derived in previous studies from detailed case studies at individual sites. In our model, kinetic and activation-type nucleation parameterizations gave similar agreement with observed monthly mean CN concentrations.
River flow regimes, including long-term average flows, seasonality, low flows, high flows and other types of flow variability, play an important role for freshwater ecosystems. Thus, climate change affects freshwater ecosystems not only by increased temperatures but also by altered river flow regimes. However, with one exception, transferable quantitative relations between flow alterations and ecological responses have not yet been derived. While discharge decreases are generally considered to be detrimental for ecosystems, the effect of future discharge increases is unclear. As a first step towards a global-scale analysis of climate change impacts on freshwater ecosystems, we quantified the impact of climate change on five ecologically relevant river flow indicators, using the global water model WaterGAP 2.1g to simulate monthly time series of river discharge with a spatial resolution of 0.5 degrees. Four climate change scenarios based on two global climate models and two greenhouse gas emissions scenarios were evaluated. We compared the impact of climate change by the 2050s to the impact of water withdrawals and dams on natural flow regimes that had occurred by 2002. Climate change was computed to alter seasonal flow regimes significantly (i.e. by more than 10%) on 90% of the global land area (excluding Greenland and Antarctica), as compared to only one quarter of the land area that had suffered from significant seasonal flow regime alterations due to dams and water withdrawals. Due to climate change, the timing of the maximum mean monthly river discharge will be shifted by at least one month on one third on the global land area, more often towards earlier months (mainly due to earlier snowmelt). Dams and withdrawals had caused comparable shifts on less than 5% of the land area only. Long-term average annual river discharge is predicted to significantly increase on one half of the land area, and to significantly decrease on one quarter. Dams and withdrawals had led to significant decreases on one sixth of the land area, and nowhere to increases. Thus, by the 2050s, climate change may have impacted ecologically relevant river flow characteristics more strongly than dams and water withdrawals have up to now. The only exception refers to the decrease of the statistical low flow Q90, with significant decreases both by past water withdrawals and future climate change on one quarter of the land area. However, dam impacts are likely underestimated by our study. Considering long-term average river discharge, only a few regions, including Spain, Italy, Iraq, Southern India, Western China, the Australian Murray Darling Basin and the High Plains Aquifer in the USA, all of them with extensive irrigation, are expected to be less affected by climate change than by past anthropogenic flow alterations. In some of these regions, climate change will exacerbate the discharge reductions, while in others climate change provides opportunities for reducing past reductions. Emissions scenario B2 leads to only slightly reduced alterations of river flow regimes as compared to scenario A2 even though emissions are much smaller. The differences in alterations resulting from the two applied climate models are larger than those resulting from the two emissions scenarios. Based on general knowledge about ecosystem responses to flow alterations and data related to flow alterations by dams and water withdrawals, we expect that the computed climate change induced river flow alterations will impact freshwater ecosystems more strongly than past anthropogenic alterations.
This paper investigates the potential impact of secondary information on rainfall mapping applying Ordinary Kriging. Secondary information tested is a natural area indicator, which is a combination of topographic features and weather conditions. Cross validation shows that secondary information only marginally improves the final mapping, indicating that a one-day accumulation time is possibly too short.
Development of a Bioaerosol single particle detector (BIO IN) for the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH
(2010)
In this work we present the setup and first tests of our new BIO IN detector. This detector was constructed to classify atmospheric ice nuclei (IN) for their biological content. It is designed to be coupled to the Fast Ice Nucleus CHamber FINCH. If one particle acts as an ice nucleus, it will be at least partly covered with ice at the end of the development section of the FINCH chamber. The device combines an auto-fluorescence detector and a circular depolarization detector for simultaneous detection of biological material and discrimination between water droplets, ice crystals and non activated large aerosol particles. The excitation of biological material with UV light and analysis of auto-fluorescence is a common principle used for flow cytometry, fluorescence microscopy, spectroscopy and imaging. The detection of auto-fluorescence of airborne single particles demands some more experimental effort. However, expensive commercial sensors are available for special purposes, e.g. size distribution measurements. But these sensors will not fit the specifications needed for the FINCH IN counter (e.g. high sample flow of up 10 LPM). The newly developed -low cost- BIO IN sensor uses a single high-power UV LED for the electronic excitation instead of much more expensive UV lasers. Other key advantages of the new sensor are the low weight, compact size, and the little effect on the aerosol sample, which allows it to be coupled with other instruments for further analysis. The instrument will be flown on one of the first missions of the new German research aircraft "HALO" (High Altitude and LOng range).
Processes occurring in the tropical upper troposphere (UT), the Tropical Transition Layer (TTL), and the lower stratosphere (LS) are of importance for the global climate, for stratospheric dynamics and air chemistry, and for their influence on the global distribution of water vapour, trace gases and aerosols. In this contribution we present aerosol and trace gas (in-situ) measurements from the tropical UT/LS over Southern Brazil, Northern Australia, and West Africa. The instruments were operated on board of the Russian high altitude research aircraft M-55 "Geophysica" and the DLR Falcon-20 during the campaigns TROCCINOX (Araçatuba, Brazil, February 2005), SCOUT-O3 (Darwin, Australia, December 2005), and SCOUT-AMMA (Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso, August 2006). The data cover submicron particle number densities and volatility from the COndensation PArticle counting System (COPAS), as well as relevant trace gases like N2O, ozone, and CO. We use these trace gas measurements to place the aerosol data into a broader atmospheric context. Also a juxtaposition of the submicron particle data with previous measurements over Costa Rica and other tropical locations between 1999 and 2007 (NASA DC-8 and NASA WB-57F) is provided. The submicron particle number densities, as a function of altitude, were found to be remarkably constant in the tropical UT/LS altitude band for the two decades after 1987. Thus, a parameterisation suitable for models can be extracted from these measurements. Compared to the average levels in the period between 1987 and 2007 a slight increase of particle abundances was found for 2005/2006 at altitudes with potential temperatures, theta, above 430 K. The origins of this increase are unknown except for increases measured during SCOUT-AMMA. Here the eruption of the Soufrière Hills volcano in the Caribbean caused elevated particle mixing ratios. The vertical profiles from Northern hemispheric mid-latitudes between 1999 and 2006 also are compact enough to derive a parameterisation. The tropical profiles all show a broad maximum of particle mixing ratios (between theta ~ 340 K and 390 K) which extends from below the TTL to above the thermal tropopause. Thus these particles are a "reservoir" for vertical transport into the stratosphere. The ratio of non-volatile particle number density to total particle number density was also measured by COPAS. The vertical profiles of this ratio have a maximum of 50% above 370 K over Australia and West Africa and a pronounced minimum directly below. Without detailed chemical composition measurements a reason for the increase of non-volatile particle fractions cannot yet be given. However, half of the particles from the tropical "reservoir" contain compounds other than sulphuric acid and water. Correlations of the measured aerosol mixing ratios with N2O and ozone exhibit compact relationships for the tropical data from SCOUT-AMMA, TROCCINOX, and SCOUT-O3. Correlations with CO are more scattered probably because of the connection to different pollution source regions. We provide additional data from the long distance transfer flights to the campaign sites in Brazil, Australia, and West-Africa. These were executed during a time window of 17 months within a period of relative volcanic quiescence. Thus the data represent a "snapshot picture" documenting the status of a significant part of the global UT/LS fine aerosol at low concentration levels 15 years after the last major (i.e., the 1991 Mount Pinatubo) eruption. The corresponding latitudinal distributions of the measured particle number densities are presented in this paper to provide data of the UT/LS background aerosol for modelling purposes.
Pollen-based climate reconstructions were performed on two high-resolution pollen marines cores from the Alboran and Aegean Seas in order to unravel the climatic variability in the coastal settings of the Mediterranean region between 15 000 and 4000 years BP (the Lateglacial, and early to mid-Holocene). The quantitative climate reconstructions for the Alboran and Aegean Sea records focus mainly on the reconstruction of the seasonality changes (temperatures and precipitation), a crucial parameter in the Mediterranean region. This study is based on a multi-method approach comprising 3 methods: the Modern Analogues Technique (MAT), the recent Non-Metric Multidimensional Scaling/Generalized Additive Model method (NMDS/GAM) and Partial Least Squares regression (PLS). The climate signal inferred from this comparative approach confirms that cold and dry conditions prevailed in the Mediterranean region during the Oldest and Younger Dryas periods, while temperate conditions prevailed during the Bølling/Allerød and the Holocene. Our records suggest a West/East gradient of decreasing precipitation across the Mediterranean region during the cooler Late-glacial and early Holocene periods, similar to present-day conditions. Winter precipitation was highest during warm intervals and lowest during cooling phases. Several short-lived cool intervals (i.e. Older Dryas, another oscillation after this one (GI-1c2), Gerzensee/Preboreal Oscillations, 8.2 ka event, Bond events) connected to the North Atlantic climate system are documented in the Alboran and Aegean Sea records indicating that the climate oscillations associated with the successive steps of the deglaciation in the North Atlantic area occurred in both the western and eastern Mediterranean regions. This observation confirms the presence of strong climatic linkages between the North Atlantic and Mediterranean regions.
Abrupt climate changes of the last deglaciation detected in a Western Mediterranean forest record
(2010)
Abrupt changes in Western Mediterranean climate during the last deglaciation (20 to 6 cal ka BP) are detected in marine core MD95-2043 (Alboran Sea) through the investigation of high-resolution pollen data and pollen-based climate reconstructions by the modern analogue technique (MAT) for annual precipitation (Pann) and mean temperatures of the coldest and warmest months (MTCO and MTWA). Changes in temperate Mediterranean forest development and composition and MAT reconstructions indicate major climatic shifts with parallel temperature and precipitation changes at the onsets of Heinrich stadial 1 (equivalent to the Oldest Dryas), the Bölling-Allerød (BA), and the Younger Dryas (YD). Multi-centennial-scale oscillations in forest development occurred throughout the BA, YD, and early Holocene. Shifts in vegetation composition and (Pann reconstructions indicate that forest declines occurred during dry, and generally cool, episodes centred at 14.0, 13.3, 12.9, 11.8, 10.7, 10.1, 9.2, 8.3 and 7.4 cal ka BP. The forest record also suggests multiple, low-amplitude Preboreal (PB) climate oscillations, and a marked increase in moisture availability for forest development at the end of the PB at 10.6 cal ka BP. Dry atmospheric conditions in the Western Mediterranean occurred in phase with Lateglacial events of high-latitude cooling including GI-1d (Older Dryas), GI-1b (Intra-Allerød Cold Period) and GS-1 (YD), and during Holocene events associated with high-latitude cooling, meltwater pulses and N. Atlantic ice-rafting. A possible climatic mechanism for the recurrence of dry intervals and an opposed regional precipitation pattern with respect to Western-central Europe relates to the dynamics of the westerlies and the prevalence of atmospheric blocking highs. Comparison of radiocarbon and ice-core ages for well-defined climatic transitions in the forest record suggests possible enhancement of marine reservoir ages in the Alboran Sea by 200 years (surface water age 600 years) during the Lateglacial.
This paper shows the equivalence of applicative similarity and contextual approximation, and hence also of bisimilarity and contextual equivalence, in the deterministic call-by-need lambda calculus with letrec. Bisimilarity simplifies equivalence proofs in the calculus and opens a way for more convenient correctness proofs for program transformations. Although this property may be a natural one to expect, to the best of our knowledge, this paper is the first one providing a proof. The proof technique is to transfer the contextual approximation into Abramsky's lazy lambda calculus by a fully abstract and surjective translation. This also shows that the natural embedding of Abramsky's lazy lambda calculus into the call-by-need lambda calculus with letrec is an isomorphism between the respective term-models.We show that the equivalence property proven in this paper transfers to a call-by-need letrec calculus developed by Ariola and Felleisen.
This note shows that in non-deterministic extended lambda calculi with letrec, the tool of applicative (bi)simulation is in general not usable for contextual equivalence, by giving a counterexample adapted from data flow analysis. It also shown that there is a flaw in a lemma and a theorem concerning finite simulation in a conference paper by the first two authors.
A logical framework consisting of a polymorphic call-by-value functional language and a first-order logic on the values is presented, which is a reconstruction of the logic of the verification system VeriFun. The reconstruction uses contextual semantics to define the logical value of equations. It equates undefinedness and non-termination, which is a standard semantical approach. The main results of this paper are: Meta-theorems about the globality of several classes of theorems in the logic, and proofs of global correctness of transformations and deduction rules. The deduction rules of VeriFun are globally correct if rules depending on termination are appropriately formulated. The reconstruction also gives hints on generalizations of the VeriFun framework: reasoning on nonterminating expressions and functions, mutual recursive functions and abstractions in the data values, and formulas with arbitrary quantifier prefix could be allowed.
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Charakterisierung des Proteoglykans Biglycan und seiner Funktion als Signalmolekül in inflammatorischen und autoimmunen Prozessen. Die biologische Bedeutung der in vitro gewonnenen Ergebnisse in primären Makrophagen und dendritischen Zellen wurde durch in vivo Modelle der Pathogenvermittelten-und nicht-Pathogen-vermittelten Inflammation und der Autoimmun-Erkrankung Lupus Nephritis bestätigt. In primären Makrophagen und dendritischen Zellen induziert Biglycan die Produktion proinflammatorischer Zytokine und Chemokine durch Interaktion mit Toll-like Rezeptor (TLR) 2 und 4. Mit nucleotide-binding oligomerization like Rezeptorprotein3 (NLRP3)-,apoptosisassociated speck-like protein containing a CARD (ASC)- , Caspase-1- und TLR2/4- defizienten Mäusen und verschiedenen pharmakologischen Inhibitoren war es möglich in primären murinen peritonealen und Knochenmark-Makrophagen nachzuweisen, dass Biglycan die Caspase-1 NLRP3/ASC-abhängig aktivierte und damit die Prozessierung der Proform und Sekretion von reifem IL-1β induzierte. Durch Bindung an TLR2/TLR4 aktivierte Biglycan die NFκB, Erk und p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) Signalwege und stimulierte die Expression von Interleukin-1 beta (IL-1β). Biglycan aktivierte zudem den P2X7 Rezeptor (P2X7R) in Makrophagen und ist somit in der Lage auch ohne zusätzliche Ko-Stimulation, beispielsweise durch ATP, das NLRP3 Inflammasom zu stimulieren und die Prozessierung von aktivem IL-1β anzuregen. In einem Pathogenvermittelten (Lipopolysaccharid (LPS)-induzierte Sepsis) wie auch –nicht-athogenvermittelten (unilaterale Uretherobstruktion, UUO) Mausmodell der Inflammation wurde die biologische Relevanz dieser Prozesses gezeigt. Die Defizienz von Biglycan ging in diesen Modellen mit verminderter Aktivierung des NLRP3/Caspase-1 Inflammasomes, geringeren Spiegeln von reifem IL-1β und geringerer Organschädigung einher. Nachdem aufgezeigt werden konnte, dass die Biglycan-Konzentrationen in Nierenbiopsien und im Plasma von Patienten mit Lupus Nephritis stark erhöht waren, wurde seine Relevanz in Immunitätsreaktionen einschließlich autoinflammatorischen Prozessen genauer untersucht. Die Effekte von Biglycan in verschiedenen Stadien der Erkrankung wurden mit der MRL-Faslpr (kurz MRL/lpr) Maus, einem etablierten Modell der Lupus Nephritis (LN) und einem dafür generierten Modell der Defizienz (Bgn-/- MRL/lpr) und Überexpression von Biglycan (hBGN MRL/lpr) analysiert. In den verschiedenen Stadien der LN nahm die Konzentration von zirkulierendem und renalem Biglycan in MRL/lpr Mäusen zu und korrelierte gleichermaßen mit dem Fortschreiten der Erkrankung. Die Defizienz von Biglycan verminderte hingegen stark die renale Infiltration von Entzündungszellen, insbesondere B1-Zellen, außerdem die Zytokin-, Chemokin- und Immunglobulin-Konzentrationen und minderte die Progredienz der Niereninsuffizienz verglichen mit Lupus Mäusen gleichen Alters. In der Initialphase der Lupus Nephritis induzierte Biglycan in Mäusen, transient transgen für humanes Biglycan (hBGN MRL/lpr), vermehrte renale Zellinfiltration und Albuminurie als Zeichen nephrotischer Dysfunktion. Zudem konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Produktion des stark proinflammatorischen Zytokines IL-1β in jungen Lupus Nephritis Mäusen NLRP3/Caspase-1-abhängig ist und durch Biglycan verstärkt wurde. Die Mechanismen, durch die endogenes Biglycan die Leukozyteninfiltration in Lupus Mäusen induzierte und somit inflammatorische und autoimmune Vorgänge potenzierte, wurden insbesondere an B-Zellen untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass Biglycan die renale Migration von einem besonderen B-Zell Subtyp, B1-Zellen, verantwortlich für die T-Zellenunabhängige Autoimmunglobulinproduktion beim LN, unterhielt. Dabei vermittelte Biglycan die Rekrutierung von B1-Zellen in die Niere durch Regulation der Expression und Synthese der B-Zell C-X-C Chemokin Ligand 13 (CXCL13) in der Niere und in residenten peritonealen Makrophagen. In vitro konnte zudem der Mechanismus aufgeklärt werden, über den Biglycan CXCL13 reguliert. In primären Makrophagen und dendritischen Zellen induziert Biglycan die Expression und Sekretion von CXCL13 über TLR2 und TLR4. Die Daten zeigen auf, dass Biglycan als endogenes Gefahrensignal starke proinflammatorische Reaktionen hervorruft. Über Rezeptoren des angeborenen Immunsystems, TLR2 und TLR4, aktiviert Biglycan des weiteren Zellen des adaptiven Immunsystems und inuziert die Rekrutierung weiterer Lymphozyten. Demnach kann postuliert werden, dass Biglycan als Brückenmolekül das anegborene und adaptive Immunsystem verbindet, und somit ein potenzielles neues „drug target“ in autoinflammatorischen, wie auch autoimmunen Vorgängen darstellt.
Methylphenidat ist ein Dopaminreuptakehemmer, der in seiner chemischen Struktur dem Amphetamin ähnlich ist. Klinisch wird es in der Behandlung des juvenilen Aufmerksamkeitsdefizit-Syndroms (ADHS) eingesetzt. Aber auch eine steigende Anzahl Erwachsener, die am ADHS leiden, profitiert von dessen therapeutischen Wirkungen. Bei gleichzeitiger Einnahme von Methylphenidat und Ethanol wird aus beiden der aktive Metabolit Ethylphenidat gebildet. Zur Charakterisierung der pharmakokinetischen Eigenschaften von Methylphenidat bei gleichzeitiger Ethanolaufnahme, wurden Untersuchungen zum in-vitro Metabolismus in humanem Leberhomogenat und ein von der Ethikkommission und der Bundesbehörde genehmigter Probandenversuch nach AMG durchgeführt. Dabei wurden drei verschiedene Konditionen mit variierter Einnahmereihenfolge der Prüfsubstanzen bei 9 gesunden männlichen Probanden untersucht, die die alleinige Aufnahme von Methylphenidat (20 mg), die Aufnahme von Methylphenidat (20 mg) 30 Minuten nach Ethanolaufnahme (Wein bis zu einer BAK von ca. 0,8 ‰) und die Einnahme von Methylphenidat (20 mg) 30 Minuten vor Ethanolaufnahme (Wein bis zu einer BAK von ca. 0,8 ‰) beinhalteten. Blutproben wurden über einen Messzeitraum bis zu 7 h entnommen und durch eine neu entwickelte validierte Methode mit Hochleistungsflüssigkeitschromatographie-Flugzeitmassenspektrometrie (LC-TOF) analysiert. Die in-vitro Versuche zeigten, dass nur in Gegenwart von Leberenzymen Ethylphenidat gebildet wurde, bei alleiniger Inkubation von Methylphenidat und Ethanol in Puffer konnte die Bildung von Ethylphenidat nicht nachgewiesen werden. In-vitro zeigten die Leberenzyme außerdem für die Ethylphenidatbildung eine Sättigung durch hohe Konzentration von Methylphenidat (Sättigung ab 0,7 mg/l) und Ethanol (Sättigung ab 5,3 g/L), die durchaus in der Anflutungsphase nach Medikamentenaufnahme in der Leber vorliegen können. Der Metabolismus zu Ritalinsäure wurde durch Ethanol deutlich gehemmt. Die enzymatische Reaktion war außerdem signifikant (p < 0,01) durch Natriumfluorid hemmbar. Bei zusätzlicher Inkubation mit Kokain (äquimolar zu Methylphenidat), konnte ebenfalls eine signifikant Verringerung der Bildung (p < 0,01) von Ethylphenidat und Ritalinsäure gezeigt werden. Dies gab einen Hinweis auf das am Metabolismus beteiligte Enzym, die humane Carboxylesterase 1A, die den Metabolismus von Kokain katalysiert. Außerdem konnte eine geringfügige Bildung von Ethylphenidat bei Inkubation von Methylphenidat und Ethanol in Serum gezeigt werden, die über eine durch Fluorid hemmbare Esterase katalysiert wurde. Im Probandenversuch fand sich in Kombination mit Ethanol ebenfalls die Bildung von Ethylphenidat. Die Konzentrationen lagen im Bereich von 0,3-3,2 mikro g/l. Methylphenidat wurde im Bereich von 4,6-28,6 mikro g/l und Ritalinsäure in einem Bereich von 187-442 mikro g/l nachgewiesen, was sich mit Ergebnissen anderer Studien deckt. Aus den quantitativen Daten wurden die pharmakokinetischen Parameter nach Einkompartimentmodell ermittelt. Für Methylphenidat wurden dabei anders als bei Kokain, bei dem sich nach Ethanolaufnahme die Wirkstoffkonzentrationen signifikant erhöhen, keine signifikanten Unterschiede bei Vergleich der 3 untersuchten Konditionen festgestellt, obwohl sich tendenziell höhere Wirkstoffkonzentrationen bei Einnahme zusammen mit Ethanol zeigten. Die Ethanolgabe vor anstatt nach Methylphenidateinnahme verzögerte die Ritalinsäurebildung (tmax 2,6 vs. 1,8 h) und im Vergleich zu der Einnahme von Methylphenidat ohne Ethanol lagen die maximalen Werte (Cmax) signifikant niedriger. Bezüglich Ethylphenidat konnte eine Erhöhung (p < 0,05) der Cmax und der Area under the curve gefunden werden, wenn Alkohol vor Methylphenidat eingenommen wurde. Im Vergleich zu Kokain, das fast 1:1 zu Kokaethylen umgesetzt wird, konnte Ethylphenidat aber nur in Spuren nachgewiesen werden. Ein Proband zeigte neben hohen Methylphenidatkonzentrationen (> 25 ng/ml) niedrige Ritalinsäurekonzentrationen (< 90 ng/ml) bei normaler Ethylphenidatbildung, was auf eine Hemmung des Methylphenidatmetabolismus bezüglich der Hydrolyse zu Ritalinsäure hindeutete. Dieser Proband wurde als „poor metabolizer“ klassifiziert. Von Kokaethylen ist bekannt, dass es bei verlängerter Halbwertszeit eine ähnlich ausgeprägte Wirkung wie Kokain besitzt. Die Eliminationshalbwertszeit von Ethylphenidat war dagegen deutlich kürzer als die von Methylphenidat (1,5 vs. 2,6 h). Die Pharmakodynamik von Ethylphenidat wurde in der Studie nicht erfasst, aus den subjektiven Berichten der Probanden ergaben sich jedoch keine deutlichen Unterschiede in der Medikamentenwirkung bei gleichzeitigem Konsum von Ethanol und Methylphenidat im Vergleich zur alleinigen Methylphenidateinnahme.