Biologische Hochschulschriften (Goethe-Universität; nur lokal zugänglich)
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This thesis is based on the following publications (in chronological order): 1. Biegel, E., S. Schmidt & V. Müller (2009) Genetic, immunological and biochemical evidence for a Rnf complex in the acetogen Acetobacterium woodii. Environ. Microbiol. 11: 1438-1443. My contribution: Amplification, sequence determination and analysis of Rnf homologues, enrichment of the Rnf complex 2. Biegel, E. & V. Müller (2010) Bacterial Na+-translocating ferredoxin:NAD+ oxidoreductase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. U. S. A. 107: 18138-18142. My contribution: I designed and performed all experiments shown and interpreted the data. 3. Biegel, E., S. Schmidt, J. Gonzáles & V. Müller (2010) Biochemistry, evolution and physiological function of the Rnf complex, a novel ion-motive electron transport complex in prokaryotes. Cell. Mol. Life Sci., in press. DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0555-8. My contribution: I was involved in writing all chapters except chapters: „phylogenetic analyses of rnf genes“ and „distribution of rnf genes“. 4. Biegel, E. & V. Müller (2010) A Na+-translocating pyrophosphatase in the acetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii. J. Biol. Chem., in press. DOI: 10.1074/jbc.M110.192823. My contribution: I designed and performed all experiments shown and interpreted the data.
Conclusion: Proteins containing a Jumonji C (JmjC) domain appear in almost all living organisms and catalyze a variety of oxidation reactions. Therefore, they are important regulators in many biological processes such as proliferation and differentiation. They act either as protein hydroxylases, histone demethylases or by regulate mRNA splicing. Given the fact that some of the JmjC domain-containing proteins are shown to be upregulated in response to hypoxia as well as the dependency of JmjC domain catalytic activity on oxygen led to the assumption of an involvement in angiogenesis. For Jmjd6, a member of the JmjC domain-containing protein family, a regulatory involvement in mRNA splicing has been shown. The Jmjd6-/- mouse dies perinatally due to several severe organ malformations, especially in the heart. Despite the pale appearance, the growth retardation and the cardiac defects, it is unclear whether these mice exhibit defects of cells comprising the vasculature. Therefore, the involvement of Jmjd6 in angiogenesis was examined in vitro using angiogenesis assays as well as in vivo using the Jmjd6+/- mouse. An siRNA-mediated knockdown of Jmjd6 in ECs significantly impaired the formation of capillary-like networks in the tube formation assay as well as sprouting in the spheroid assay. Moreover, after siRNA-mediated knockdown of Jmjd6 in ECs cell migration was significantly reduced. These findings were confirmed in the matrigel plug assay in vivo. Implanted matrigel plugs of Jmjd6+/- mice exhibited significantly less perfused vessels compared to wildtype littermates. Furthermore, cultured lung ECs from Jmjd6+/- mice exhibited impaired network forming activity ex vivo compared to cells isolated from wildtype littermates. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying the requirement of Jmjd6 in angiogenesis, an Affymetrix exon-array was performed, which allows detection of changes in gene expression as well as splicing. The siRNA-mediated knockdown of Jmjd6 altered the expression of genes known to play a role in vascular biology. The bioinformatic assessment of alternative splice variants revealed that Jmjd6 silencing affects the splicing of the VEGF receptor 1 (Flt1). Differential splicing of Flt1 was shown to generate a short and soluble form of Flt1 (sFlt1), which sequestrates VEGF and PlGF, and thereby inhibits angiogenesis. In particular, a significant increase in sFlt1 expression was observed. Jmjd6 was recently reported to hydroxylate the splicing factor U2AF65. Therefore, we investigated whether U2AF65 might mediate Flt1 splicing and binds to Flt1 mRNA. Indeed, U2AF65 co-immunoprecipitated with Jmjd6 in ECs, while an interaction of U2AF65 with sFlt1 was demonstrated. Moreover, inhibition of Jmjd6 catalytic function by reduced oxygen concentration altered splicing of Flt1 resulted in an increase of the sFlt1 splice variant. Finally, saturating concentrations of VEGF or PlGF or neutralizing antibodies against sFlt1 significantly reduced the inhibition of sprouting caused by Jmjd6 knockdown in vitro.
Collectively, our results indicate that Jmjd6 has an essential role in the oxygen-dependent regulation of angiogenesis by controlling the splicing of Flt1 mRNA, thereby adjusting the generation of the anti-angiogenic short splice variant sFlt1. Several publications demonstrated a major importance for sFlt1 as a biomarker for many severe human diseases such as preeclampsia, sepsis, cancer, myocardial infarction as well as chronic heart failure. Therefore, the identification of the molecular mechanism behind the generation of sFlt1 might enable the development of new or more precise clinical markers for the diagnosis of the corresponding diseases. Furthermore, the discovery of the enzymes involved in the generation of sFlt1 provides further possibilities to modulate sFlt1 levels and thereby may potentially gives rise to the development of new therapies.
Protein translocation across the chloroplast membrane is mediated by molecular machinery composed of protein complexes termed the TOC/TIC (the outer/inner envelope chloroplasts translocases). This translocation process is regulated by metabolic energy in form of GTP and ATP and is influenced by the lipid composition of the membrane. The ability to study the function of a single complex “TOC” in vitro using purified protein or purified chloroplast outer envelope vesicles has been instrumental for our understanding of the mechanism underlying this process.
Indeed, the TOC complex has been purified by previously established procedures. However its functional and structural analyses are impaired by the limited yield of purified protein. Therefore, protocols for native TOC complex purification are described here. The complex isolation is achieved by direct biochemical treatment of biological membrane hosting this complex or by tandem affinity purification of modified protein complex components from generated transgenic plants.
Furthermore, in this thesis, radioactive based in vitro import assays are described, namely those that allow monitoring translocation activity across the outer envelope of chloroplast. Based on the analysis of knock-out plants and isolated complexes it was previously suggested that lipid dependence of protein translocation might exist. Thus, the question was raised whether the lipid composition of the membrane has a direct influence on the behavior and functionality of the TOC translocon, or whether additional components of the chloroplast membrane account for the observed effect in vivo. To answer this question, a technique for vesicle fusion was developed. The principal aim was to explore the effect of an exchange of the lipid environment surrounding the complex translocon. This method helped to demonstrate that the SQDG and PI act stimulatory on the translocation across the outer envelope of chloroplast, whereas DGDG exhibits an inhibitory effect on TOC complex functionality.
Clathrin-mediated endocytosis (CME) involves spatially and temporally restricted molecular dynamics.
Although protein kinases and the actin cytoskeleton contribute to the process, whether and how
functions of kinases and actin are integrated remains unknown. Here, we demonstrate that neural
Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome protein (N-WASP) and protein kinase CK2 form a complex and localize on
clathrin-coated vesicles (CCVs). N-WASP binds to and is phosphorylated by CK2, thereby reducing the
kinase activity of CK2. By contrast, N-WASP-promoted actin polymerization is decreased upon both
phosphorylation and binding of CK2. Knockdown of N-WASP and CK2, alone or in combination, results
in impaired endocytosis of epidermal growth factor (EGF) and increased cell-surface levels of EGF
receptor (EGFR). In order to rescue the phenotype of N-WASP-CK2 knockdown cells, both N-WASP and
CK2 activities and abilities to assemble in a complex are required. In summary, this study shows that the
N-WASP-CK2 complex integrates in a single circuit different activities contributing to CME of EGFR and
that the interplay between the two proteins optimizes this process.
Sponges are one of the major components of benthic communities and are considered to be a
key role organism in marine ecosystems. In addition to their importance in terms of
biodiversity, sponges are becoming increasingly attractive to the industry, as they themselves
or associated symbionts, produce various kinds of secondary metabolites of pharmaceutical
properties. Some of them have already been clinically applied.
The taxonomic characters of Porifera are limited to only a few morphological and
histological characters. In addition, sponges of the same species often show a wide
morphological variability, whereas the latter depends on different ecological parameters such
as water depth and current conditions. Thus, the taxonomic classification of sponges often
becomes a scientific challenge.
The fauna of the Yellow Sea rates among the least studied worldwide. At the same time,
according to the UN Atlas of the Ocean, the Yellow Sea is one of the most intensively
exploited marine areas in the world. This is not least due to the dense human population living
in the entire catchment area of the Yellow Sea region. In order to compile medium- and longterm
conclusions about the anthropogenic impact on biota of the Yellow Sea, the knowledge
of species and their distribution is of crucial importance, as these data form the baseline for all
future conservation efforts.
Until now the sponge fauna of the Chinese Yellow Sea is insufficiently investigated.
Thus, there is only one publication on sponges from this region that has been released
hitherto. This paper is dealing with only a view species. However, there is no reference
concerning the present location of the voucher material, on which this publication is based on.
Consequently, no scientific collection on Porifera from the Chinese part of the Yellow Sea
exists to date.
In order to compile a documentation of the recent sponge community of the Chinese
Yellow Sea, 12 study sites along the coast of the Liaoning Peninsula, China, Northeast
Yellow Sea, were investigated with focus on sponge distribution. The corresponding habitats
were characterized in regard to their topographical features, abiotic parameters, and common
composition of benthic megafaunal and macroalgal assemblages.
Due to the lack of comparable studies, a comprehensive literature research on sponges of the
shallow Northwest Pacific Ocean was required. As a result the first compilation of
publications is presented, dealing with sponges from shallow depths of the northwestern
Pacific Ocean.
Abstract
2
In the course of this study, 31 sponge species in total were recorded, which are scientifically
processed. With the exception of four all specimens were determined to species- level.
Twelve out of the total number of species are new to science and are described and classified
according to the recent taxonomic system of the phylum Porifera.
The results of this study indicate considerable differences in species composition between
investigated sites. It is shown that physical factors (particularly current regime, sedimentation,
seasonally related variations in temperatures), as well the availability of suitable substrates are
directly related to the diversity and abundance of investigated sponge communities. In this
context possible adaptation strategies of the corresponding sponges were discussed in detail.
Two sponge species, Clathria (Clathria) asodes and Antho (Acarnia) lithophoenix, formerly
known exclusively from the northeastern Pacific Ocean, are now recorded from the Northwest
Pacific Ocean for the first time. Furthermore, Penares hongdoensis, Clathria (Clathria)
hongdoensis and Celtodoryx girardae were synonymized with Penares cortius, Clathria
(Clathria) acanthostyli, and Celtodoryx ciocalyptoides respectively. Moreover, the occurrence
of eight sponge species, which were known from previous records from the Yellow Sea, could
be confirmed.
As a result of this study the Asian origin of a sponge species that is invasive to the French and
Dutch coasts of the Northeast Atlantic Ocean since the 1990s could be established. Moreover,
it is demonstrated that Celtodoryx girardae from the northeastern Atlantic is in fact
conspecific with Cornulum ciocalyptoides described by Burton (1935) from the Posiet Bay,
Sea of Japan. Apart from taxonomic remarks, variations between populations from both
oceans are examined and discussed thoroughly in regard to possible ecological implications.
The community of documented sponges shows overlapping with the one from the Sea of
Japan. According to the results it is assumed that the endemic degree of the sponges from the
Chinese Yellow Sea is rather low to moderate.
The material obtained in the course of this study was integrated in the collection of the
Senckenbergischen Naturforschenden Sammlungen. Therefore, it is the first scientific
collection of sponges from the Chinese Yellow Sea that can be consulted as a basis for all
further studies on sponges of this region.
The present study is the only investigation of sponges from Dalian and adjacent waters before
the spill occurred in the Dalian harbour in July 2010. Therefore, it provides an essential
baseline needed to assess the impact of the oil spill on benthic communities.
The translocation of nuclear-encoded precursor proteins into chloroplasts is a highly ordered process involving the action of several components to regulate this molecular ensemble. Not only GTP hydrolysis and GDP release but also the phosphorylation of TOC GTPases is a widely discussed mechanism to regulate protein import. The receptor component (Toc34) and its isoform of A. thaliana (atToc33) were found to be regulated by phosphorylation. Although the phosphorylation of Toc33 is already known for several years, several questions regarding the molecular components involved in the regulation of the phosphorylation process, precisely what is the protein kinase and where this kinase is initially localized, so far remained unclear.
This thesis aimed at the defining of the phosphorylation status of TOC GTPases in monomeric and/or dimeric states, the identification of the nature of Toc33-PK (protein kinase), and in the same context it aimed at gaining first insights into the physiological significance of Toc33 phosphorylation. To this end, (I) An in vitro and in vivo system for investigating of TOC GTPases Phosphorylation (in monomeric or dimeric state) was developed. Since no information is available about the phosphorylation status of the Toc159 isoforms, the second receptor of the TOC complex, it was interesting to investigate whether these isoforms undergo phosphorylation or not. The results indicated that atToc159 isoforms are able to be phosphorylated by the kinase activity in purified outer envelope membranes (OEMs) of pea, but not atToc132. Moreover, an artificial dimer of psToc34 based on the interaction of a C-terminally fused leucine zipper was not phosphorylated. This result reflected the inability of the OEM kinase to phosphorylate the dimers of TOC GTPases. Also, In vivo labeling of atToc33 was developed and occurred in a dose-dependent manner. Therefore, this results evidenced that in vitro phosphorylation of atToc33 (both endogenous wild type and recombinant expressed proteins) is not artificial labeling but represents a physiological relevance. CD (circular dichroism) measurements revealed that recombinant GTPase domain of atToc33 is preferentially phosphorylated in its folded state. Therefore, it could be suggested that folding of atToc33rec is a prerequisite for its phosphorylation and the phosphorylation event occurs as a posttranslational modification most likely after insertion of Toc33 (Toc34) into the OE of chloroplasts.
Secondly, (II) Isolation and identification of Toc33-PK from OEMs of chloroplasts was performed. Four independent strategies were developed to identify the Toc33-protein kinase: UV-induced and chemically-based crosslinking, different applied chromatographic techniques, identification of PK-Toc33 interaction by means of HDN-PAGE (histidine- and deoxycholate-based native PAGE), and finally mass spectrometric approaches were performed on fractions including the potential kinase activity. UV-induced crosslinking procedure was developed and resulted in covalent bonding of nine proteins to [a-32P] ATP, while chemically-based one was not significant. The applied chromatographic and HDN-PAGE approaches, including mass spectrometry, have revealed the identification of 13 protein kinases. Of these identified kinases, phototropin2 (Phot2, AT5G58140), leucine-rich repeat PK (LRR-PK, AT4G28650.1), and receptor-like transmembrane PK (RLK, AT5G56040.2) were selected as the most promising candidates (ca. kinase type and one transmembrane helix for membrane localization).
(III) The physiological significance of Toc33 phosphoryation was shown to link this process with the environmental changes (especially, the light conditions). Identification of chloroplast OE-located PKs performed by nLC-MALDI-MS/MS resulted in the detection of Phot2. Furthermore, the subcellular localization of Phot2 in OEM of chloroplasts was confirmed by immunoblotting experiments using a-Phot2 antibody. The kinase activity of Phot2 towards TOC GTPases was characterized and revealed that fused GST-KD (kinase domain) protein able to specifically phosphorylate atToc33rec, but not atToc159rec. Also, endogenous atPhot2 was upregulated and heavily detected in the ppi1-S181A plant line (where serine to alanine exchange was performed to abolish the phosphorylation of atToc33). Hence, we suggested that certain signal cascades may directly or indirectly link Toc33 receptor phosphorylation, protein levels of Phot2 (as promising PK candidate), and irradiation conditions (as an inducing signal of the subsequent phosphorylation events). Light-dependent phosphorylation of Toc33 was shown either after de-etiolation conditions or after high light intensities of blue light was performed. Therefore, phosphorylation of Toc33 might be identified as an external regulatory signal to regulate preproteins import into chloroplasts in response to environmental conditions (e.g. light changes) or as a signal of chloroplast biogenesis.
5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) catalyzes the first two steps in leukotriene (LT) biosynthesis. In a two step reaction the enzyme oxygenates arachidonic acid (AA) to form the highly unstable epoxide leukotriene A4 (LTA4) in dehydrating a hydroperoxide intermediate (20). LTA4 can then be further metabolized by two terminal synthases yielding either the potent chemoattractant leukotriene B4 (LTB4) or the cysteinyl leukotrienes (CysLTs). 5-LO enzyme expression is primarily found in mature leukocytes (22) where it can either reside in the cytoplasm or in the nucleus associated with euchromatin (29). Its enzymatic activity is embedded in a complicated network in intact cells regulating LT synthesis by various factors dependent on the cell type and nature of stimulus. Factors such as the amount of free AA released by phospholipase A2 enzymes, levels of enzymes involved, catalytic activity per enzyme molecule and availability of different small molecules influence 5-LO activity (36).
The 5-LO derived LTs are lipid mediators which were shown to primarily mediate inflammatory and allergic reactions and their role in the pathogenesis of asthma is well defined. CysLTs are among the most potent bronchoconstrictors yet studied in man and play an important role in airway remodeling. LTB4 has no bronchoconstrictory effects in healthy and asthmatic humans but displays potent chemoattractant properties on neutrophils and increases leukocyte adhesion to the vessel wall endothelium (22). Therefore, LTB4 enhances the capacity of macrophages and neutrophils to ingest and kill microbes. In concert with LTB4, histamine and prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) CysLTs are thought to maintain the tone of the human airways (82).
Besides their well studied role in asthma, 5-LO derived LTs have also been implicated to play a role in cardiovascular diseases and cancer. In contrast to healthy tissues, LT pathway enzymes and receptors were found to be abundantly expressed in cancer tissues, atherosclerotic lesions in the aorta, heart and carotid artery (86). Pharmacological inhibition of 5-LO potently suppressed tumour cell growth by inducing cell cycle arrest and triggering cell death via the intrinsic apoptotic pathway (92, 93). In several studies LTs were found to exhibit cardiovascular actions by promotion of plasma leakage in postcapillary venules, coronary artery vasoconstriction and impaired ventricular contraction leading to reduced coronary blood flow and cardiac output (24). Unfortunately, the precise molecular mechanisms through which LTs influence carcinogenesis and cardiovascular diseases are still incompletely understood.
In contrast, an increasing number of studies questions the correlation between 5-LO and cancer (95-97) since extreme LT concentrations were applied to induce proliferative effects in the majority of the publications. A few studies exist which show susceptibility towards 5-LO products in physiological concentrations or achieve anti-proliferation by applying low concentrations of 5-LO inhibitors (98) ...
NK cells are part of the innate immune system, and are important players in the body’s first defence line against virus-infected and malignantly transformed cells. While T cells recognize neoplastic cells in an MHC-restricted fashion, NK cells do not require prior sensitization and education about the target. In leukemia and lymphoma patients undergoing allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation not only T cells but also NK cells have been found to mediate potent graft-versus-tumor effects. Hence, autologous or donor-derived NK cells hold great promise for cancer immunotherapy. Since the generation of highly purified NK cell products for clinical applications is labor-intensive and time consuming, established human NK cell lines such as NK-92 are also being considered for clinical protocols. NK-92 cells display phenotypic and functional characteristics similar to activated primary NK cells. While NK-92 cells are highly cytotoxic towards malignant cells of hematologic origin, they do not affect healthy human tissues. NK-92 cells can be expanded under GMP-compliant conditions, and can therefore be provided in sufficient numbers with defined phenotypic characteristics for clinical applications. Safety of NK-92 cells for adoptive immunotherapy was already shown in two phase I/II clinical trials...
NOSTRIN belongs to the recently defined F-BAR protein family. F-BAR proteins are
multi-domain proteins, which serve as adaptors between plasma membrane and
cytoskeleton components in processes such as membrane protrusion formation,
endocytosis and migration. NOSTRIN encompasses a F-BAR domain at the N-terminus,
which mediates membrane association, followed by a HR1 motif and an intermediate
domain (ID) domain in the middle, and a SH3 domain at the C-terminus. The domain
architecture and ability to form oligomers enable NOSTRIN to coordinate several
interaction partners namely dynamin, caveolin, N-WASP and endothelial nitric oxide
synthase (eNOS) in the process of eNOS trafficking. In this context NOSTRIN was
originally identified and hence termed eNOS traffick inducer. NOSTRIN is expressed in
vascularized tissues (e.g. liver and lung) and in primary endothelial cells.
Aims of the present work were (1) to investigate if NOSTRIN is involved in other
processes besides eNOS trafficking, (2) to analyse the function of NOSTRIN in vivo
through knockdown of NOSTRIN in developing zebrafish and (3) to study the
consequences of the loss of NOSTRIN on signal transduction in a primary cell culture
model derived from NOSTRIN knockout mice.
To study the possible involvement of NOSTRIN in other processes besides eNOS
trafficking a yeast two-hybrid screen was performed in which fibroblast growth factor
receptor 1 (FGFR1) was identified as a putative novel interaction partner of NOSTRIN. In
a series of yeast two-hybrid, pulldown and co-immunoprecipitation experiments the
interaction between NOSTRIN and FGFR1 was confirmed to occur between
endogenously expressed proteins and determined to be direct and to depend on the ID
domain of NOSTRIN and the 130 C-terminal amino acid residues of FGFR1. FGFR1 is
activated by binding of fibroblast growth factors (FGFs) and induces several different
signal transduction pathways (e.g. MAPK and Akt pathway). Overexpression of
NOSTRIN in HeLa cells specifically enhanced FGF2-dependent MAPK activation.
Accordingly, depletion of NOSTRIN attenuated FGF2-dependent MAPK activation and
did not affect FGF2-induced Akt activation.
In summary, NOSTRIN has been identified as a novel interaction partner of FGFR1
involved in FGF2-dependent signal transduction.
The morpholino oligonucleotide-mediated knockdown of NOSTRIN in developing
zebrafish caused vascular leakage and irregular vascular patterning e.g. a loss of the
proper trajectory of intersegmental vessel and interruptions of the dorsal longitudinal
anastomotic vessel. The vascular phenotype was consistent upon use of two different
morpholinos and could be rescued in a dose dependent manner by the injection of
zebrafish NOSTRIN mRNA. Detailed analysis involving confocal and time lapse
microscopy in zebrafish with endothelial specific expression of EGFP revealed that the
knockdown of NOSTRIN impacts in vivo on the migration and morphology of endothelial
tip cells and leads to a reduction of filopodia number and length.
Additionally a NOSTRIN knockout mouse was generated. The analysis of FGFR1 signal
transduction in primary mouse lung endothelial cells (MLECs) from NOSTRIN knockout
and wild type mice revealed that FGF2-dependent MAPK activation was attenuated in
MLECs isolated from NOSTRIN knockout mice when compared to MLECs isolated from
wild type mice. The effect of NOSTRIN on FGF2-dependent signal transduction seems to
be specific, since VEGF-induced MAPK activation was not affected in NOSTRIN
knockout MLECs. The importance of NOSTRIN for FGF2 signal transduction in vivo is
demonstrated by the greatly impaired angiogenic response to FGF2 in NOSTRIN
knockout mice in matrigel plug assay. In a detailed biochemical analysis it was
discovered that NOSTRIN interacts with the activated small GTPase Rac1 and that
overexpression of NOSTRIN enhances Rac1 activation. Furthermore, the interactions of
NOSTRIN with both Rac1 and its GEF Sos1 are required for NOSTRIN-mediated
activation of Rac1. In accordance, activation of Rac1 was not detected upon FGF2
stimulation in NOSTRIN knockout MLECs.
In conclusion, the present work describes a novel function of the F-BAR protein
NOSTRIN in FGFR1 signal transduction. Data presented in this work demonstrate that
NOSTRIN is required for the assembly of a complex consisting of FGFR1, Sos1 and
Rac1 and subsequently for the FGF2-dependent activation of Rac1 in endothelial cells.
The role of small leucine-rich proteoglycans, biglycan and decorin, in podocytopathy and albuminuria
(2011)
Biglycan is a member of the small leucine-rich proteoglycan (SLRP) family and is involved in the assembly of extracellular matrix components. In macrophages soluble biglycan acts as an endogenous ligand of the innate immunity receptors TLR2 and TLR4. Data addressing the role of biglycan in renal pathology are surprisingly limited. In a normal kidney, biglycan is expressed mainly in the tubulointerstitium; however, in the course of various renal diseases its expression may be altered. The biological role and mechanisms of biglycan action in the pathology of renal diseases, especially those affecting glomeruli, remain poorly understood.
Albuminuria is the first detectable clinical abnormality in diabetic nephropathy. In this study we detected increased biglycan mRNA expression in glomeruli of renal biopsies of patients with incipient diabetic nephropathy, with predominant localization in podocytes. This novel finding raised the question about the role and mechanisms of biglycan action in diabetic podocyte injury and whether the mechanisms of biglycan signaling causing podocyte injury and albuminuria could be extrapolated to other glomerular diseases.
To investigate the role of biglycan in the cause of diabetic podocyte injury and albuminuria we used the murine model of STZ-induced diabetic nephropathy and wild type (Bgn+/0) and biglycan deficient (Bgn-/0) mice. We observed that biglycan was expressed on mRNA and protein levels in podocytes of diabetic Bgn+/0 mice and that diabetic Bgn+/0 mice also had significantly higher albuminuria compared to non-diabetic mice 6 and 12 weeks after disease induction. Biglycan deficiency was shown to be an important factor in albuminuria development. Namely, we observed that diabetic Bgn-/0 mice had significantly lower levels of urinary albumin compared to diabetic Bgn+/0 mice. We showed that less severe podocyte loss in the urine of diabetic Bgn-/0 mice was associated with significantly higher nephrin and podocin glomerular expression compared to diabetic Bgn+/0 mice. Our data suggested that biglycan deficiency was protective against podocyte loss into urine and might be beneficial against development of albuminuria in diabetes.
Biglycan contributed to podocyte actin rearrangement due to increased phosphorylation of Rac1 in vitro. Furthermore, biglycan induced caspase-3 activity and production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thus enhancing apoptosis in cultured podocytes. Biglycan-induced ROS generation was TLR2/TLR4-dependent. Overexpression of soluble biglycan in wild type mice induced albuminuria under normal conditions and significantly increased albuminuria under pathological conditions (murine model of LPS-induced albuminuria). Inhibition of Rac1 activity in vivo decreased the albuminuria induced by biglycan overexpression. In patients with glomerular diseases, biglycan was detected in urine and was associated with nephrin appearance in the urine of these patients and with increased albuminuria. Collectively, our results elucidate a novel mechanism for biglycan-induced TLR2- and TLR4-dependent, Rac1- and ROS-mediated podocytopathy leading to podocyturia, albuminuria development and progression of glomerular diseases. Interfering with biglycan actions and blocking its signaling via TLR2 and TLR4 might be a potential therapeutic strategy against these diseases. To achieve this goal, the specific mechanisms for binding of biglycan to TLR2 and TLR4 must be elucidated and effective ways of preventing this binding must be developed. Nevertheless, biglycan remains the “danger signal” that activates innate immune receptors in non-immune cells and triggers the deleterious mechanisms leading to aggravation of renal injury.