410 Linguistik
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This dissertation provides an analysis of Finnish prosody, with a focus on the sentence or phrase level. The thesis analyses Finnish as a phrase language. Thus, it accounts for prosodic variation through prosodic phrasing and explains intonational differences in terms of phrase tones.
Finnish intonation has traditionally been described in terms of accents associated with stressed syllables, i.e. similarly as prototypical intonation languages like English or German. However, accents are usually described as uniform instead of forming an inventory of contrasting accent types. The present thesis confirms the uniformity of Finnish tonal contours and explains it as based on realisations of tones associated with prosodic phrases instead of accents. Two levels of phrasing are discussed: Prosodic phrases (p-phrases) and intonational phrases (i-phrases). Most prominently, the p-phrase is marked by a high tone associated with its beginning and a low tone associated with its end; realisations of these tones form the rise-fall contours traditionally analysed as accents. The i-phrase is associated with a final tone that is either low or high and additionally marked by voice quality and final lengthening. While the tonal specifications of these phrases are thus predominantly invariant, variation arises from different distributions of phrases.
This analysis is based on three studies, two production experiments and one perception study. The first production study investigated systematic variation in information structure, first syllable vowel quantity and the target word's position in the sentence, while the second production experiment induced variation in information structure, first and second syllable type and number of syllables. In addition to fundamental frequency, the materials were analysed regarding duration, the occurrence of pauses and voice quality. The perception study investigated the interpretation of compound/noun phrase minimal pairs with manipulated fundamental frequency contours using a two-alternative forced-choice picture selection task. Additionally, a pilot perception study on variation in peak height and timing supported the assumption of uniform tonal contours.
Statistical machine translation (SMT) should benefit from linguistic information to improve performance but current state-of-the-art models rely purely on data-driven models. There are several reasons why prior efforts to build linguistically annotated models have failed or not even been attempted. Firstly, the practical implementation often requires too much work to be cost effective. Where ad-hoc implementations have been created, they impose too strict constraints to be of general use. Lastly, many linguistically-motivated approaches are language dependent, tackling peculiarities in certain languages that do not apply to other languages. This thesis successfully integrates linguistic information about part-of-speech tags, lemmas and phrase structure to improve MT quality. The major contributions of this thesis are: 1. We enhance the phrase-based model to incorporate linguistic information as additional factors in the word representation. The factored phrase-based model allows us to make use of different types of linguistic information in a systematic way within the predefined framework. We show how this model improves translation by as much as 0.9 BLEU for small German-English training corpora, and 0.2 BLEU for larger corpora. 2. We extend the factored model to the factored template model to focus on improving reordering. We show that by generalising translation with part-of-speech tags, we can improve performance by as much as 1.1 BLEU on a small French- English system. 3. Finally, we switch from the phrase-based model to a syntax-based model with the mixed syntax model. This allows us to transition from the word-level approaches using factors to multiword linguistic information such as syntactic labels and shallow tags. The mixed syntax model uses source language syntactic information to inform translation. We show that the model is able to explain translation better, leading to a 0.8 BLEU improvement over the baseline hierarchical phrase-based model for a small German-English task. Also, the model requires only labels on continuous source spans, it is not dependent on a tree structure, therefore, other types of syntactic information can be integrated into the model. We experimented with a shallow parser and see a gain of 0.5 BLEU for the same dataset. Training with more training data, we improve translation by 0.6 BLEU (1.3 BLEU out-of-domain) over the hierarchical baseline. During the development of these three models, we discover that attempting to rigidly model translation as linguistic transfer process results in degraded performance. However, by combining the advantages of standard SMT models with linguistically-motivated models, we are able to achieve better translation performance. Our work shows the importance of balancing the specificity of linguistic information with the robustness of simpler models.
In literary translation 'correctness' is rarely ratified by linguistic rules; it is more often a question of what a sensitive translator feels to be correct. Intuition will therefore play a major part. This intuition is seen here neither as instinctive reaction prompted by experience, nor as native competence, but as an inquiring, self-moderating influence inspired by the language itself. It is treated in this respect as an informed intuition, that is, as having a linguistic base for sensitive judgement. This assumes that the literary translator is both a creative writer and his own critical reader as well as a fine judge of language potential. This line is applied to translating meaning and sense, transferring the very language, imitating the form and style, re-creating the features, and above all, to capturing those unique qualities of the original. After dealing with word-accuracy, the question of literary input demanded by form and style is examined. The treatment of language used for effect features in a section on Kafka. The merits and the problems of translating dialect as dialect for its own sake are looked at closely and in a positive way as are the possibilities of reproducing 'oddities' of language. The immense task of translating the language of Joyce ('Ulysses ') with all its vagaries and skilful manipulation of words is examined for the possibility of providing an accurate copy. The ultimate test of reproducing a uniqueness of artistic creation together with the profound thought which inspired it, is reserved for a section on Hopkins. While it is recognized that, owing to the constrictions imposed by the extreme and sensitive use of language, no translation can fully include all that there is in his poems, it might be possible to capture enough of their essence to give an impression of a 'German' Hopkins at work. A major objective throughout is the establishment of a linguistic base for the part played by intuition in literary translation.
Çeviri yaparken her iki dile, kültüre yeterince hâkim olmamak bir dizi çeviri hatalarına yol açabilir. Bu noktada kaynak ve erek dilde yeterli kelime hazinesine sahip olmanın yanı sıra kelimelerin kullanım alanlarını, kurallarını, edim bilimsel etkilerini, sözdizimsel kuralları vs. de iyi bilmek gerekir. Humboldt ve Saussure’ün dil hakkındaki düşüncelerinden etkilenen Trier’in ortaya attığı sözlüksel alan teorisinin metin anlama ve anlatma edinci kapsamında etkilerinin neler olabileceği ve çeviribilimin sözlüksel alan teorisinden nasıl yararlanabileceği konusu irdelenmeye çalışılacaktır. Trier’e (1973:5) göre bir sözcüğün anlaşılabilmesi için, sözlüksel alanın tamamının bilinmesi
gerekir ve ancak sözlüksel alana hâkim isek o sözcüğü doğru anlayabiliriz. Anlam sadece ve sadece sözlüksel alan sayesinde vardır. Sözlüksel alan yoksa anlam da yoktur. Anlatılmak istenen düşünceye veya olguya dair bir kelimenin belli bir dilde bulunmaması bu düşüncenin veya olgunun o dilde olmadığı anlamına gelmez. Hayata dair genel kültür bilgimize ve tecrübelerimize dayanarak bu yeni kavramı
anlayabiliriz.
‘Çeviribilim’ olarak adlandırılan araştırma alanında geride bırakılan son birkaç on yıla bakıldığında bilim ve kültürde yaşanan kimi olay ve gelişmelerin Almanya ve Avrupa merkezli ‘çeviri’ araştırmalarına yön verdiği söylenebilir. Bilişim konusundaki gelişmeler, eylem kuramının ve iletişimbilimin dönüşümü, işlevselciliğin yeniden yorumlanması; edimbilimin evrimi, bilişsel felsefedeki yeni gelişmeler, yeni bakış açılarını ortaya çıkarmıştır. Bu bakış açılarının birer sonucu olarak ‘çeviribilim’ olarak adlandırılan çeviri odaklı düşünmelerde yeni ağırlık noktaları ve buradan hareketle ‘kuram’ ya da ‘yaklaşım’ biçiminde ifade edilen çalışmalar oluşmuştur. Kuramcıların belli olgulara bakış açıları onların nesneye yaklaşım biçimlerini ve algılarını etkiler. Çeviri olgusuna dönük savlar ortaya koyan kuramcılara bakıldığında ‘olgular bütünü’ ya da ‘karmaşık olgu’ olarak değerlendirilebilecek bir olguya dair farklı yaklaşım ve tutum alışlardan söz edilmektedir. Bu noktada, karmaşık bir dünyayı temsil eden çok boyutlu bir olgu olarak ‘çeviri’nin kendine özgü niteliği, 90’lı yıllardan başlayarak günümüze kadar gelen süreçte, ‘çeviribilimin’ psikoloji alanı ile ilişkilendirilmesi sonucunu beraberinde getirmiştir. Bu çerçevede araştırmaların ilgisi, ‘çeviri gerçekliği’nde merkeze oturtulan ‘çevirmen’e yönelmiş, ‘çevirmen’in bir ürün olarak ‘çeviri’yi hangi tutum ve ruhsal duruma dayanarak ortaya koyduğuna ilişkin araştırma yönelimi önem kazanmıştır. “Belli koşullar altında bir çevirmeni belli bir çeviri çıktısına, diğer bir deyişle belli bir çeviri metne götüren olay örgüsü nedir?” ya da “çeviri sırasında hangi zihinsel işlemler gerçekleşiyor?” gibi sorulardan hareket eden yaklaşımların bir üst bakışla ele alınması bu çalışmanın ana konusunu oluşturmaktadır.
The present study is about note taking techniques in consecutive translation and their application. In the beginning we analyzed in the relevant literature, consecutive interpretation among translation techniques, note taking, and the function and features of note taking in consecutive translation. Afterwards, we presented the problems that an interpreter might face in consecutive interpretation with concrete examples and provided possible methods and techniques to overcome these. Hereby, we emphasized that note taking techniques are an important feature to remember while translating and its function as a memory supporting tool. In the last section we discussed the roles of a consecutive interpreter and emphasized within this context the usage of the earlier mentioned note taking techniques (use of acronyms, signs, and symbols). Moreover we highlighted that each interpreter has to have his/her own techniques and improve these continuously.
Several phenomena associated with the differences in the performance of novice interpreters and semi-professionals have been discussed in the paper. Particular emphasis was placed on the occurrence of imported cognitive load which strongly influenced the performance of the subjects also in places where no intrinsic difficulty had been detected. Nevertheless, too little evidence was provided to establish a more detailed pattern of imported cognitive load, which was due to the limited number of participants in the study. It would be possible to obtain more detailed data and comments from the participants by means of interviews conducted individually with the participants. It would allow asking detailed questions to the participants, which might be a more reliable method than the immediate retrospective accounts. Moreover, in the present study such variables as gender differences, age differences and the possible influence of other foreign languages were not taken into account. Perhaps these variables might shed some light on the issue of the management of cognitive resources. Also, the corpus gathered for the present study may be used for the investigation of other aspects of the SI performance.
Translation is a very broad, complex and multi-faceted phenomenon, encompassing much more factors than it seems at first glance. It is not just copying the words from the original work while changing the language, but it consists of a careful selection of appropriate phrases and expressions, combining them together in a skillful way while taking into consideration numerous aspects, one of them being the text type. The purpose of this article is, therefore, to present various text typologies and text types, specify their implications for translators and determine the role of the correct recognition of text type in producing a successful translation. This will be done on the assumption that a text type is one of the basic factors that allow the translator to recognise the function and purpose of the text as well as the author's intention. Thus, depending on the nature of these, the translator will inevitably resort to different techniques and strategies in order to successfully render the source text. Therefore, identifying the text type also helps the translator to select the appropriate translation strategy.