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In high energy p+p(bar) interactions the mean multiplicity and transverse mass spectra of neutral mesons from eta to Upsilon (m = 0.5 - 10 GeV/c^2) and the transverse mass spectra of pions (m_T > 1 GeV/c^2) reveal a remarkable behaviour: they follow, over more than 10 orders of magnitude, the power-law function:The parameters C and P are energy dependent, but similar for all mesons produced at the same collision energy. This scaling resembles that expected in the statistical description of hadron production: the parameter P plays the role of a temperature and the normalisation constant C is analogous to the system volume. The fundamental difference is, however, in the form of the distribution function. In order to reproduce the experimental results and preserve the basic structure of the statistical approach the Boltzmann factor e^(-E/T) appearing in standard statistical mechanics has to be substituted by a power-law factor (E/Lambda)^(-P).
Die vorliegende Arbeit befaßt sich mit der Untersuchung von Photonenemissionsmustern im einzelnen Ereignis, wie sie bei einer Schwerionenkollision von Schwefel auf Gold bei einer Energie von 200 GeV pro Nukleon produziert werden. Diese Ereignisse wurden mit dem Photonen-Multiplizitäts-Detektor im WA93-Experiment am CERN aufgenommen. Die globalen Observablen einer ultrarelativistischen Schwerionenkollision, wie z.B. Multiplizitäts- und Energieverteilungen der Teilchen, lassen sich durch Rechnungen mit dem String-Modell VENUS3.11 gut beschreiben. In diesem Modell werden alle bekannten, in einer Kern-Kern-Kollision ablaufenden physikalischen Prozesse eingebaut. Ein Vergleich von Verteilungen globaler Meßgrößen aus dem Experiment mit solchen aus Modellrechnungen zeigt, welche Resultate durch schon bekannte, in dem Modell berücksichtigte, physikalische Vorgänge verursacht sind und welche auf noch unbekannten Vorgängen oder auf Detektoreffekten beruhen. Um aus solchen Vergleichen den Einfluß noch unbekannter physikalischer Prozesse auf Verteilungen zu erkennen, muß die Veränderung der physikalischen Observablen bei der Messung durch den Detektor selbst berücksichtigt werden. Die Wechselwirkung der aus der Reaktionszone emittierten Teilchen mit der im Experiment befindlichen Materie der Detektoren wird mit dem Detektorsimulationsprogramm GEANT dargestellt. Der Einfluß der Detektoren kann für globale Observablen sehr zufriedenstellend beschrieben werden, was sich in der guten Übereinstimmung der Multiplizitäts- und Rapiditätsverteilung der im WA93-Experiment nachgewiesenen Photonen mit den Verteilungen aus Modellrechnungen zeigt. Auch die Dynamik der Kollision, sichtbar in der Verteilung der transversalen Energie, wird durch das Modell wiedergegeben. Auf dem Niveau von Einzelereignissen und der Verteilung von Photonen innerhalb eines Ereignisses ist es äusserst wichtig, den Einfluß der Detektoreffekte auf die Verteilungen zu bestimmen. Bei der Untersuchung von Fluktuationen und Korrelationen auf der Basis von Einzelereignissen wurde deshalb ein Vergleich zu Mixed Events angestellt, bei denen die Detektoreffekte beibehalten, aber alle vorhandenen Korrelationen aufgelöst werden. In dieser Arbeit wurden die Photonenemissionsmuster der Einzelereignisse (eventby- event-Analyse) mit der Minimal-Spanning-Tree (MST)-Methode auf Dichtefluktuationen hin untersucht. Die emittierten Photonen geben einen Hinweis auf die Emissionsstruktur von Mesonen, insbesondere der leichten pi0-Mesonen, weil Photonen überwiegend durch den Zerfall produzierte Teilchen sind und die räumliche Verteilung ihrer Ursprungsteilchen weitgehend widerspiegeln. Die Untersuchung von Teilchendichtefluktuationen, insbesondere der durch die Kollision produzierten Mesonen, kann zum besseren Verständnis des Verhaltens der Kernmaterie bei hohen Dichten und hohen Temperaturen beitragen. Waren Dichte und Temperatur in der Reaktionszone ausreichend hoch, könnte sich ein Quark-Gluon-Plasma gebildet haben. Die bei der anschließenden Expansion und Abkühlung stattfindende Kondensation zu Hadronen könnte ein Phasenübergang erster Ordnung sein. Die Größe der Fragmente, in diesem Fall die Hadronen und alle Gruppierungen daraus, sollte eine Verteilung ergeben, die mit einer Funktion Sa angenähert werden kann, wie es von verschiedenen Autoren im Zusammenhang mit Phasenübergängen erster Ordnung beobachtet wurde. Dabei ist S die Fragmentgröße und a eine negative Konstante. Die MST-Methode ist geeignet, das Emissionsmuster einzelner Photonenereignisse aus Schwerionenreaktionen in Cluster zu unterteilen. Die mit der MST-Methode definierten Cluster ergeben sich direkt aus der unterschiedlichen Dichteverteilung der Photonen auf der Detektorfläche in einem Einzelereignis. Die Cluster werden mit den obengenannten Fragmenten in Zusammenhang gebracht, wobei die Zahl der Photonen in einem Cluster die Fragmentgröße S darstellt. Ein wesentlicher Vorteil der MST-Methode besteht darin, daß sie zunächst keinerlei Einschränkung in der Art der zu suchenden Strukturen erfordert. Es müssen keine räumlichen Strukturen vorgegeben werden, nach denen dann in der Punkteverteilung gesucht wird, wie das in anderen Analysemethoden der Fall ist. Aus der durchgeführten Analyse hat sich ergeben, daß die MST-Methode sehr sensitiv auf Fluktuationen in der räumliche Dichteverteilung der Treffer im Einzelereignis ist. Die zweidimensionalen Räume, in denen die Dichteverteilung untersucht wird, können beliebig festgelegt werden und sind durch die Metrik, in der die Abstände des Minimal-Spanning-Trees berechnet werden, definiert. In dieser Arbeit wurden der x-y- Raum (Metrik 1) und der h-j-Raum (Metrik 2) benutzt. Dabei gibt Metrik 1 im wesentlichen Effekte in der Detektorgeometrie wieder und Metrik 2 ist eher dem Phasenraum und damit der Physik angepaßt. Zum Vergleich mit den Ergebnissen aus WA93-Datenereignissen wurden Cluster auf die gleiche Weise in Mixed Events, in Ereignissen aus Modellrechnungen und in Ereignissen mit Zufallsverteilungen von Punkten bestimmt. Die räumliche Verteilung der in den WA93-Datenereignissen gefundenen Cluster auf der Ebene des Detektors weist auf starke Inhomogenitäten in der Photonenverteilung hin. Der Vergleich mit entsprechenden Verteilungen der Cluster in Mixed Events und berechneten Ereignissen zeigt, daß ein Großteil dieser Inhomogenitäten durch Detektoreffekte verursacht wird. Zu diesen Detektoreffekten zählt auch die hohe Ansprechwahrscheinlichkeit für geladene Hadronen, so daß durch den Einsatz des Dipolmagneten eine inhomogene Verteilung der Treffer auf dem PMD verursacht wird. Diese durch Detektoreffekte verursachten Inhomogenitäten in den Photonenemissionsmustern können mögliche, durch physikalische Ursachen während der Kollision hervorgerufene, Dichtefluktuationen überlagern. Die Größenverteilung der Cluster in den WA93-Daten konnte mit einer Funktion Sa angenähert werden. Die Konstante a ergab sich dabei zu -3.0 für die in Metrik 1 gefundenen Cluster und -2.7 für die in Metrik 2 gefundenen Cluster. Die Größenverteilung der in den WA93-Datenereignissen mit Metrik 1 bestimmten Cluster zeigt keine großen Abweichungen zu den aus Mixed Events und aus simulierten Ereignissen gewonnenen Größenverteilungen. Die Größenverteilung, die mit Metrik 1 aus einer reinen Zufallsverteilung von Punkten erhalten wurde, liegt unterhalb der anderen drei Verteilungen. In den Verteilungen der Größe der in Metrik 2 definierten Cluster bestehen jedoch deutliche Unterschiede von WA93-Datenereignissen zu den Verteilungen aus anderen Ereignissen mit vergleichbaren Pseudorapiditätsverteilungen. Es wird eine Erhöhung der Wahrscheinlichkeit für große Cluster mit mehr als 20 Photonen in realen Datenereignissen beobachtet. Zunächst wurde angenommen, daß diese Erhöhung der Wahrscheinlichkeit für große Cluster die Folge der starken Inhomogenitäten in der zugrundeliegenden Trefferverteilung sein könnte. Wie die detaillierte Untersuchung der räumlichen Verteilung der Cluster jedoch gezeigt hat, ist diese inhomogene Verteilung der Photonen auch in den Mixed Events zu finden; die Erhöhung der Wahrscheinlichkeit für große Cluster tritt allerdings nicht auf. Daß diese Beobachtung in den Mixed Events nicht gemacht wird, könnte ein Hinweis darauf sein, daß die Erhöhung in der Größenverteilung der Cluster durch physikalische Ursachen hervorgerufen wird. Ein weiterer Hinweis darauf, daß die Ineffizienzen des Detektors allein nicht zu großen Clustern führen, zeigt der Vergleich von Mixed Events zu den Datenereignissen mit zufälligem Azimut. Trotz der Unterschiede in der räumlichen Verteilung der Cluster ergibt sich eine annähernd gleiche Wahrscheinlichkeitsverteilung. Die in dieser Arbeit mit der MST-Methode durchgeführten Analyse hat gezeigt, daß „saubere“, d.h. untergrund- und detektoreffektfreiere Photonendaten notwendig sind, bevor Rückschlüsse auf zugrundeliegende physikalische Ursachen gemacht werden können. Dazu ist eine wesentliche Verbesserung der Datenauslese erforderlich, um die großen Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Auslesemodulen zu vermeiden. Eine Weiterentwicklung in der Datenaufbereitungsmethode könnte zu einer besseren Separation von Hadronen und Photonen und damit zu einer untergrundfreieren Photonenmessung führen. Erforderlich ist auch eine sehr genaue Simulation der Detektoreffekte durch Angabe aller Details des Experiments im GEANT-Programm. Nach den Schwerionenexperimenten mit Sauerstoff- und Schwefelstrahlen wurde das Schwerionenprogramm am CERN 1994 durch den Bleistrahl 208Pb mit der Energie von 158 GeV pro Nukleon weitergeführt. Mit der Vergrößerung des Reaktionssystems erwartete man nicht unbedingt eine Erhöhung der Energiedichte, aber einen größeren Thermalisierungsgrad des Systems. Ziel blieb immer noch der Nachweis des Quark- Gluon-Plasmas und die Erforschung von Materie unter extremsten Bedingungen. Um eine möglichst universelle Aussage über den Ablauf einer ultrarelativistischen Schwerionenreaktion machen zu können, wurde ein Experiment, das WA98-Experiment, mit einer großen Akzeptanz für die Messung von Photonen und Hadronen entworfen. Die Kombination von Signalen verschiedener Detektoren sollte es ermöglichen unterschiedliche Charakteristika der Stoßprozesse parallel zu untersuchen. Basierend auf den Erfahrungen mit dem Photonen-Multiplizitäts-Detektor im WA93-Experiment, auch die im Zusammenhang mit dieser Arbeit gewonnenen Erkenntnisse, wurde ein größerer und verbesserter Detektor für den Einsatz im WA98- Experiment gebaut. Der Detektor wurde erstmals 1994 zur Messung von Photonenverteilungen in Pb-Pb Kollisionen bei Energien von 158 GeV pro Nukleon am CERN SPS eingesetzt.
Recent results on transverse mass spectra of J/psi and psi prime mesons in central Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV are considered. It is shown that those results support a hypothesis of statistical production of charmonia at hadronization and suggest the early thermal freeze-out of J/psi and psi prime mesons. Based on this approach the collective transverse velocity of hadronizing quark gluon plasma is estimated to be <v^H_T> \approx 0.2. Predictions for transverse mass spectra of hidden and open charm mesons at SPS and RHIC are discussed.
The transverse mass spectra of Omega, J/psi and psi' in Pb+Pb collisions at 158 AGeV are studied within a hydrodynamical model of the quark gluon plasma expansion and hadronization. The model reproduces the existing data with the common hadronization parameters: temperature T=T_H = 170 MeV and average collective transverse velocity v_T = 0.2.
Results of the production of Xi and Xi-bar hyperons in central Pb+Pb interactions at 158 GeV/c per nucleon are presented. This analysis utilises a global reconstruction procedure, which allows a measurement of 4pi integrated yields to be made for the first time. Inverse slope paramters, which are determined from an exponential fit to the transverse mass spectra, are shown. Central rapidity densities are found to be 1.49 +- 0.08 and 0.33 +- 0.04 per event per unit of rapidity for Xi and Xi-bar respectively. Yields integrated to full phase space are 4.12 +- 0.02 and 0.77 +- 0.04 for Xi and Xi-bar. The ratio of Xi-bar/Xi at mid-rapidity is 0.22 +- 0.03.
Measurements of charged pion and kaon production in central Pb+Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 AGeV are presented. These are compared with data at lower and higher energies as well as with results from p+p interactions. The mean pion multiplicity per wounded nucleon increases approximately linearly with s_NN^1/4 with a change of slope starting in the region 15-40 AGeV. The change from pion suppression with respect to p+p interactions, as observed at low collision energies, to pion enhancement at high energies occurs at about 40 AGeV. A non-monotonic energy dependence of the ratio of K^+ to pi^+ yields is observed, with a maximum close to 40 AGeV and an indication of a nearly constant value at higher energies.The measured dependences may be related to an increase of the entropy production and a decrease of the strangeness to entropy ratio in central Pb+Pb collisions in the low SPS energy range, which is consistent with the hypothesis that a transient state of deconfined matter is created above these energies. Other interpretations of the data are also discussed.
The transverse mass spectra of J/psi and psi' mesons and Omega hyperons produced in central Au+Au collisions at RHIC energies are discussed within a statistical model used successfully for the interpretation of the SPS results. The comparison of the presented model with the future RHIC data should serve as a further crucial test of the hypothesis of statistical production of charmonia at hadronization. Finally, in case of validity, the approach should allow to estimate the mean transverse flow velocity at the quark gluon plasma hadronization.
Experiment NA49 at the Cern SPS uses a large acceptance detector for a systematic study of particle yields and correlations in nucleus-nucleus, nucleon-nucleus and nucleon-nucleon collisions. Preliminary results for Pb+Pb collisions at 40, 80 and 158 A*GeV beam energy are shown and compared to measurements at lower and higher energies.
The energy dependence of hadron production in central Pb+Pb collisions is presented and discussed. In particular, midrapidity m_T-spectra for pi-, K-, K+, p, bar p, d, phi, Lambda and bar Lambda at 40, 80 and 158 AGeV are shown. In addition Xi and Omega spectra are available at 158 AGeV. The spectra allow to determine the thermal freeze-out temperature T and the transverse flow velocity beta_T at the three energies. We do not observe a significant energy dependence of these parameters; furthermore there is no indication of early thermal freeze-out of Xi and Omega at 158 AGeV. Rapidity spectra for pi-, K-, K+ and phi at 40, 80 and 158 AGeV are shown, as well as first results on Omega rapidity distributions at 158 AGeV. The chemical freeze-out parameters T and mu_B at the three energies are determined from the total yields. The parameters are close to the expected phase boundary in the SPS energy range and above. Using the total yields of kaons and lambdas, the energy dependence of the strangeness to pion ratio is discussed. A maximum in this ratio is found at 40 AGeV. This maximum could indicate the formation of deconfined matter at energies above 40 AGeV. A search for open charm in a large sample of 158 AGeV events is presented. No signal is observed. This result is compared to several model predictions.
Directed and elliptic flow of charged pions and protons in Pb + Pb collisions at 40 and 158 A GeV
(2003)
Directed and elliptic flow measurements for charged pions and protons are reported as a function of transverse momentum, rapidity, and centrality for 40 and 158A GeV Pb + Pb collisions as recorded by the NA49 detector. Both the standard method of correlating particles with an event plane, and the cumulant method of studying multiparticle correlations are used. In the standard method the directed flow is corrected for conservation of momentum. In the cumulant method elliptic flow is reconstructed from genuine 4, 6, and 8-particle correlations, showing the first unequivocal evidence for collective motion in A+A collisions at SPS energies.