540 Chemie und zugeordnete Wissenschaften
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Current metabolomics approaches utilize cellular metabolite extracts, are destructive, and require high cell numbers. We introduce here an approach that enables the monitoring of cellular metabolism at lower cell numbers by observing the consumption/production of different metabolites over several kinetic data points of up to 48 hours. Our approach does not influence cellular viability, as we optimized the cellular matrix in comparison to other materials used in a variety of in‐cell NMR spectroscopy experiments. We are able to monitor real‐time metabolism of primary patient cells, which are extremely sensitive to external stress. Measurements are set up in an interleaved manner with short acquisition times (approximately 7 minutes per sample), which allows the monitoring of up to 15 patient samples simultaneously. Further, we implemented our approach for performing tracer‐based assays. Our approach will be important not only in the metabolomics fields, but also in individualized diagnostics.
Leukotrienes (LTs) are pro-inflammatory lipid mediators that belong to the group of eicosanoids, which are oxygenated metabolites of one common precursor, the aracidonic acid (AA). This polyunsaturated fatty acid is esterified at the sn-2 position of cellular membrane phospholipids and can be released by cytosolic phospholipase A2 alpha (cPLA2alpha) enzymatic deacylation. AA can be converted into LTs by the catalytic reaction of 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO). Enzymatic activation of cPLA2alpha as well as of 5-LO is regulated by similar determinants. In response to cellular stimuli that elevate the intracellular Ca2+ level and/or activate MAP kinase pathways, cPLA2alpha and 5-LO comigrate from a soluble cell compartment (mainly the cytosol) to the nuclear membrane, where AA is released und converted into LTs. LTs play a significant role in promoting inflammatory reactions and immune processes. They have been shown to be released from leukocytes in response to bacterial and viral infections and substantially contribute to an effective immune reaction for host defense. Innate immune pathogen recognition is mediated to a substantial part by the Toll-like receptor (TLR) family. So far, 10 human TLR subtypes have been identified, all of which detect distinct highly conserved microbial structures and trigger the induction of signaling pathways that lead to the expression of numerous immune and inflammatory genes. TLR signaling culminates in the activation NF-kappaB and/or MAP kinases, which as well are known to be involved in the regulation of cellular LT biosynthesis. In this regard, it seemed conceivable that the release of LTs might be regulated by TLR activation. Present studies were undertaken in order to verify and characterize a possible influence of TLR activation on the LT biosynthesis, and furthermore to identify the involved signaling pathways and underlying mechanisms. First experiments revealed that pre-incubation of differentiated Mono Mac 6 (MM6) cells with a TLR4 ligand, a TLR5 ligand, as well as with different TLR2 ligands led to an about 2-fold enhancement of Ca2+ ionophore induced LT biosynthesis. Ligands of other TLR subtypes did not show any influence. These observations could also be confirmed in primary human monocytes stimulated with ionophore or fMLP. With focus on TLR2 ligands, further studies were carried out to characterize the observed enhancement of LT biosynthesis in MM6 cells. It was demonstrated that the extent of LT formation was dependent on the ligand concentration used, but was also dependent on the duration of pre-incubation. Ligand pre-incubation of 15 minutes was optimal to maximally enhance LT formation and further prolongation of pre-incubation decreased LT formation again. Moreover, simultaneous addition of TLR2 ligands with ionophore did also not enhance LT formation. These results indicated that TLR2 ligands seemed to prime human monocytes for an enhanced response upon ionophore stimulation, but did not act as costimuli, which per se were not capable of directly stimulating the biosynthesis of LTs. To analyze the underlying mechanism, the impact of TLR2 ligands on the two key enzymes of the LT biosynthesis pathway, cPLA2alpha and 5-LO, was investigated. In this regard, 5-LO could not been shown to be positively regulated by TLR ligand priming. Neither a direct stimulation, nor an enhancement of 5-LO activity by TLR ligands was detectable in MM6 cells. Similarly, TLR2 ligands did also not enhance ionophore induced 5-LO translocation to the nuclear membrane. However, it was shown that TLR2 ligands enhanced ionophore induced release of AA in MM6 cells, which occurred with a similar time course as LT formation, displaying a maximum at 10 minutes of pre-incubation. A direct stimulation of AA release, however, could not been detected. Inhibitor studies revealed cPLA2alpha to be essential for AA release in TLR2 ligand primed, ionophore stimulated MM6 cells, but also sPLA2 was found to be involved. However, the priming effect of TLR2 ligands was mediated exclusively by cPLA2alpha. Western Blot analyses revealed that p38 MAP kinase, as well as ERK1/2, are activated in MM6 cells in response to TLR2 ligands, and also Ser-505 phosphorylation of cPLA2alpha was detected, which is known to be mediated by MAP kinases and to increase cPLA2alpha activity in vitro. Maximal cPLA2alpha phosphorylation occurred after 5-10 minutes of TLR2 ligand incubation, slightly preceding maximal AA release at 10 minutes and maximal LT formation at 15 minutes of priming. The combined use of a specific p38 MAPK inhibitor with an inhibitor of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway resulted in a complete prevention of cPLA2alpha phosphorylation and TLR2 ligand mediated enhancement of AA release. Thus, both MAPK pathways seem to play a role for TLR2 ligand mediated priming effects on the release of AA. An impact of other kinases such as Mnk-1 and CamKII, which can also regulate cPLA2alpha by phosphorylation, was excluded. Finally, an anti-hTLR2 antibody significantly reduced enhanced AA release, confirming the priming effects to be dependent on TLR2 activation. In summary, it was concluded that the increase of LT biosynthesis by TLR2 ligand priming is considerably due to an enhanced cellular AA supply, which arises from a MAPK mediated phosphorylation and up-regulation of cPLA2alpha. TLR dependent enhancement of LT biosynthesis represents an interesting link between activation of innate immune receptors and the rapid formation of pro-inflammatory lipid mediators. On the one hand, this support the role of LTs in host defence and infectious diseases, but may also be relevant in pathophysiological processes, which involve TLRs as well as LTs, as it has been shown for the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis or allergic diseases.
Zusammenfassung Die Alzheimersche Krankheit (AD) ist mit 60% die am häufigsten auftretende Art der Demenz. Weltweit sind ca. 24 Mio. Menschen von der neurodegenerativen Krankheit betroffen, welche sich durch den Verlust der kognitiven Fähigkeiten auszeichnet. Es gibt zwei Ausprägungen der Demenz, zum einen die sporadische Verlaufsform, die bei Menschen in einem Alter ab 65 Jahren auftritt und zum anderen die familiäre Alzheimersche Krankheit (FAD), die schon weitaus jüngere Menschen betrifft und auf genetische Mutationen zurück zu führen ist. Beide Formen der Demenz zeigen den gleichen neuropathologische Phänotyp, der zur Ausbildung von extrazellulären Plaques und intrazellulären Neurofibrillen führt. Durch die Entstehung der Plaques und der Neurofibrillen werden die Verbindungen zwischen den einzelnen Neuronen verringert und die Neuronen sterben ab. Für das Auftreten der FAD sind Mutationen in den Genen des Amyloid Vorläufer Proteins (APP, Substrat) sowie der Aspartatprotease Einheit des γ-Sekretase Komplexes, Presenilin 1 (PS1) oder Presenilin 2 (PS2), verantwortlich. Die γ-Sekretase ist ein membranständiger Komplex bestehend aus den vier Untereinheiten PS1 oder PS2, Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 und Pen-2. Um ausreichende Informationen über den γ-Sekretase Komplex bezüglich seiner Interaktionsflächen, seines Katalysemechanismus und seiner Substraterkennung zu erhalten, wäre es hilfreich seine 3 Dimensionale Struktur aufzuklären, wozu große Mengen der sauberen und homogenen Proteine benötigt werden. Die Herstellung von ausreichenden Proteinmengen stellt derzeit aber einen Engpass für die strukturelle und funktionelle Charakterisierung des γ-Sekretase Komplexes in-vitro dar. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common cause of dementia, which affects 24 million people worldwide. It is a neurodegenerative disorder, which occurs either in its most common form in people over 65 years or in the rare early-onset familial AD (FAD). Responsible for the autosomal dominant FAD are mutations in the genes encoding for the β-amyloid precursor protein (APP) and the two homologues integral membrane proteins Presenilin 1 (PS1) and Presenilin 2 (PS2). The two PSs are major but alternative components of the intramembrane aspartyl protease γ-secretase. Further components are the membrane proteins Nicastrin (Nct), Aph-1 and Pen-2. Production of sufficient amounts of protein samples is still the major bottleneck for the detailed functional and structural in-vitro characterization of the γ-secretase complex. Due to toxicity, stability and targeting problems, the overproduction of MPs in conventional in-vivo systems often has only limited success. Therefore, efficient expression protocols using the cell-free (CF) system were established in this work. After optimization, I was able to produce up to milligram amounts of the single proteins PS1 and PS2, the cleavage products PS1-NTF and PS1-CTF, and Pen-2. The in-vitro produced γ-secretase subunits were further characterized, concerning their purity, secondary fold, thermal stability and homogeneity. Highest purities with over 90% after affinity chromatography could be achieved for PS1-CTF and Pen-2. Reconstitution of PS1, PS1-NTF, PS1-CTF and Pen-2 into E. coli liposomes results in a homogeneously distribution, which gives evidence for a structural folding. This was confirmed by CD spectroscopy of PS1-CTF and Pen-2. The thermal stability of Pen-2 shows a transition at 68°C, whereas PS1-CTF is stable up to 95°C. Both proteins show in addition homogeneous elution profiles investigated by analytical SEC and exhibit a monomeric (Pen-2) or dimeric (PS1-CTF) character analyzed by blue native PAGE. Different methods were performed to get evidence about the assembly of the complex, like pull-down experiments, immunoprecipitation, co-expression of radioactive labeled subunits and titration assays by liquid-state NMR. First hints for an interaction of the CF synthesized proteins could be observed by co-expression. Supplemental, Pen-2 and CTF could be purified in sufficient amounts and to apparent homogeneity that allow structural approaches by X-ray crystallography and liquid-state NMR spectroscopy. First conditions for protein crystals were achieved for Pen-2 and structural investigations of PS1-CTF by liquid-state NMR could be performed after optimization of the expression-, purification- and detergent conditions.
The light-harvesting complex of photosystem II (LHC-II) is the major antenna complex in plant photosynthesis. It accounts for roughly 30% of the total protein in plant chloroplasts, which makes it arguably the most abundant membrane protein on Earth, and binds about half of plant chlorophyll (Chl). The complex assembles as a trimer in the thylakoid membrane and binds a total of 54 pigment molecules, including 24 Chl a, 18 Chl b, 6 lutein (Lut), 3 neoxanthin (Neo) and 3 violaxanthin (Vio). LHC-II has five key roles in plant photosynthesis. It: (1) harvests sunlight and transmits excitation energy to the reaction centres of photosystems II and I, (2) regulates the amount of excitation energy reaching each of the two photosystems, (3) has a structural role in the architecture of the photosynthetic supercomplexes, (4) contributes to the tight appression of thylakoid membranes in chloroplast grana, and (5) protects the photosynthetic apparatus from photo damage by non photochemical quenching (NPQ). A major fraction of NPQ is accounted for its energy-dependent component qE. Despite being critical for plant survival and having been studied for decades, the exact details of how excess absorbed light energy is dissipated under qE conditions remain enigmatic. Today it is accepted that qE is regulated by the magnitude of the pH gradient (ΔpH) across the thylakoid membrane. It is also well documented that the drop in pH in the thylakoid lumen during high-light conditions activates the enzyme violaxanthin de-epoxidase (VDE), which converts the carotenoid Vio into zeaxanthin (Zea) as part of the xanthophyll cycle. Additionally, studies with Arabidopsis mutants revealed that the photosystem II subunit PsbS is necessary for qE. How these physiological responses switch LHC-II from the active, energy transmitting to the quenched, energy-dissipating state, in which the solar energy is not transmitted to the photosystems but instead dissipated as heat, remains unclear and is the subject of this thesis. From the results obtained during this doctoral work, five main conclusions can be drawn concerning the mechanism of qE: 1. Substitution of Vio by Zea in LHC-II is not sufficient for efficient dissipation of excess excitation energy. 2. Aggregation quenching of LHC-II does not require Vio, Neo nor a specific Chl pair. 3. With one exception, the pigment structure in LHC-II is rigid. 4. The two X-ray structures of LHC-II show the same energy transmitting state of the complex. 5. Crystalline LHC-II resembles the complex in the thylakoid membrane. Models of the aggregation quenching mechanism in vitro and the qE mechanism in vivo are presented as a corollary of this doctoral work. LHC-II aggregation quenching in vitro is attributed to the formation of energy sinks on the periphery of LHC-II through random interaction with other trimers, free pigments or impurities. A similar but unrelated process is proposed to occur in the thylakoid membrane, by which excess excitation energy is dissipated upon specific interaction between LHC-II and a PsbS monomer carrying Zea. At the end of this thesis, an innovative experimental model for the analysis of all key aspects of qE is proposed in order to finally solve the qE enigma, one of the last unresolved problems in photosynthesis research.
P2X-Rezeptoren sind ligandengesteuerte Kationenkanäle, die durch extrazelluläres ATP aktiviert werden. Bisher wurden sieben Isoformen kloniert (P2X1-P2X7), die eine gemeinsame Topologie besitzen, bestehend aus intrazellulären N- und C-Termini, zwei Transmembranregionen und einer großen Ektodomäne. Um funktionelle Ionenkanäle ausbilden zu können, müssen P2X-Untereinheiten in Homo- oder Heterotrimere assemblieren. Das übergeordnete Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war das Identifizieren von Proteindomänen, die zu der Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten beitragen. Hierzu diente in erster Linie die humane P2X5- (hP2X5-) Untereinheit, der durch Herausspleißen von Exon 10 eine Region fehlt, die in der Literatur als eventuell wichtig für die Assemblierung beschrieben wird. Exon 10 kodiert 22 Aminosäuren, die in der distalen Ektodomäne und der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion liegen. Das Fehlen dieser Aminosäuren führt zu Untereinheiten, die nicht in der Lage sind, zu trimerisieren und funktionelle Ionenkanäle auszubilden. Durch das schrittweise Einsetzen der von Exon 10 kodierten Aminosäuren in die hP2X5-Untereinheit sowie die Expression verschiedener Alanin-Mutanten mit nachfolgender Analyse durch Blaue-Native-PAGE konnte gezeigt werden, dass das fehlerhafte Assemblierungsverhalten der hP2X5-Untereinheit in erster Linie durch das Fehlen der äußeren Hälfte der zweiten Transmembranregion bewirkt wird. Zusätzliche gezielte Mutationen und die Konstruktion von Deletionsmutanten ergaben weiterhin, dass die zweite Transmembranregion vornehmlich als hydrophober Membrananker dient, um die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung von Assemblierungsdomänen zu gewährleisten. Die wichtigsten Assemblierungs-informationen scheinen in der Ektodomäne zu liegen. Die einzige Aminosäure in der zweiten Transmembranregion, die einen spezifischen Einfluss auf die Trimerisierung von hP2X5-Untereinheiten hatte, war 355D. Einzelmutationen in dieser Position zeigten, dass nur Aminosäuren, deren Seitenketten in der Membran interhelikale Wasserstoffbrücken ausbilden können, eine effiziente Trimerisierung ermöglichen. Dieses Ergebnis legte den Schluss nahe, dass 355D die Assemblierung unterstützt, indem es die Interaktion zwischen den Untereinheiten über eine Wasserstoffbrückenbildung stabilisiert. Die Suche nach einem potentiellen Interaktionspartner von 355D in der ersten Transmembranregion durch Einzelmutationen und Cystein-Crosslinking war allerdings nicht erfolgreich. Dies könnte bedeuten, dass die beiden Transmembranregionen jeweils benachbarter Untereinheiten nicht, wie für P2X2-Untereinheiten gezeigt, in einer „head to tail“-Orientierung angeordnet sind, sondern nur die zweiten Transmembranregionen miteinander in Kontakt stehen. Limitierte Proteolyse von hP2X5-Rezeptormutanten ergab einen engen Zusammenhang zwischen der Trimerisierung und der Resistenz gegenüber einer Proteolyse durch Trypsin. Daraus folgt, dass trimerisierungsfähige P2X-Mutanten korrekt gefaltet sind, während ein Verlust der Trimerisierungsfähigkeit eine Fehlfaltung anzeigt. Neben dem hP2X5-Rezeptor wurden auch Ratten-P2X1- (rP2X1-) Rezeptoren untersucht. rP2X1-Konstrukte, die lediglich aus der Ektodomäne sowie einem abspaltbaren Signalpeptid bestanden, konnten zwar partiell multimerisieren, aber keine definierten Trimere bilden. Die Analyse weiterer Konstrukte zeigte, dass beide Transmembranregionen für die Trimerisierung wichtig sind, auch wenn sie keine spezifischen Assemblierungsinformationen enthalten. Ein systematisches Alanin-Scanning der gesamten Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit ergab, dass die Ektodomäne multiple Sequenzmotive enthält, die zu der Trimerisierung beitragen. Die genaue Rolle der identifizierten Sequenzmotive muss in weiteren Experimenten geklärt werden. Zusätzlich wurden Chimären aus rP2X1- und Ratten-P2X6- (rP2X6-) Untereinheiten untersucht. Da rP2X6-Untereinheiten nicht in der Lage sind zu trimerisieren, könnten sie in Kombination mit Sequenzelementen aus rP2X1-Untereinheiten ermöglichen, trimerisierungsrelevante Proteindomänen zu identifizieren. Es zeigte sich, dass eine Chimäre, die die Ektodomäne der rP2X1-Untereinheit und die Transmembranregionen und zytosolischen Domänen der rP2X6-Untereinheit enthielt, trimerisieren konnte, während die umgekehrte Chimäre dies nicht vermochte. Dies war ein weiterer Hinweis darauf, dass die Motive, die für die Trimerisierung von P2X-Untereinheiten essentiell sind, in der Ektodomäne liegen. Zusammenfassend belegen diese Ergebnisse, dass die Transmembranregionen bei der Assemblierung im Wesentlichen eine Funktion als hydrophobe Membrananker haben, die die korrekte Topologie und Positionierung der extrazellulären Assemblierungsdomänen ermöglichen. Die initiale Assemblierung wird durch die Ausbildung einer interhelikalen Wasserstoffbrücke über 355D stabilisiert. Somit können die wichtigsten Assemblierungsdomänen in Kontakt treten, die in der Ektodomäne lokalisiert sind.