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Jurassic accretionary complex of the Tamba terrane, southwest Japan, and its formative process
(1993)
A graph theoretical approach to the analysis, comparison, and enumeration of crystal structures
(2008)
As an alternative approach to lattices and space groups, this work explores graph theory as a means to model crystal structures. The approach uses quotient graphs and nets - the graph theoretical equivalent of cells and lattices - to represent crystal structures. After a short review of related work, new classes of cycles in nets are introduced and their ability to distinguish between non-isomorphic nets and their computational complexity are evaluated. Then, two methods to estimate a structure’s density from the corresponding net are proposed. The first uses coordination sequences to estimate the number of nodes in a sphere, whereas the second method determines the maximal volume of a unit cell. Based on the quotient graph only, methods are proposed to determine whether nets consist of islands, chains, planes, or penetrating, disconnected sub-nets. An algorithm for the enumeration of crystal structures is revised and extended to a search for structures possessing certain properties. Particular attention is given to the exclusion of redundant nets and those, which, by the nature of their connectivity, cannot correspond to a crystal structure. Nets with four four-coordinated nodes, corresponding to sp3 hybridised carbon polymorphs with four atoms per unit cell, are completely enumerated in order to demonstrate the approach. In order to render quotient graphs and nets independent from crystal structures, they are reintroduced in a purely graph-theoretical way. Based on this, the issue of iso- and automorphism of nets is reexamined. It is shown that the topology of a net (that is the bonds in a crystal) constrains severely the symmetry of the embedding (that is the crystal), and in the case of connected nets the space group except for the setting. Several examples are studied and conclusions on phases are drawn (pseudo-cubic FeS2 versus pyrite; α- versus β- quartz; marcasite- versus rutile-like phases). As the automorphisms of certain quotient graphs stipulate a translational symmetry higher than an arbitrary embedding of the corresponding net would show, they are examined in more detail and a method to reduce the size of such quotient graphs is proposed. Besides two instructional examples with 2-dimensional graphs, the halite, calcite, magnesite, barytocalcite, and a strontium feldspar structures are discussed. For some of the structures it is shown that the quotient graph which is equivalent to a centred cell is reduced to a quotient graph equivalent to the primitive cell. For the partially disordered strontium feldspar, it is shown that even if it could be annealed to an ordered structure, the unit cell would likely remain unchanged. For the calcite and barytocalcite structures it is shown that the equivalent nets are not isomorphic.
High field strength element systematics and Lu-Hf & Sm-Nd garnet geochronology of orogenic eclogites
(2008)
Concerning the Bulk Silicate Earth (BSE), the depleted mantle and the continental crust are thought to balance the budget of refractory and lithophile elements, resulting in complementary trace element patterns. However, the two high field strength elements (HFSE) Niob and Tantal appear to contradict this mass balance. All reservoirs of the silicate Earth exhibit subchondritic Nb/Ta ratios, possibly as a result of Nb depletion. The two HFSE Zr and Hf on the other hand seem not to be fractionated between the silicate reservoirs. They show more or less chondritic Zr/Hf ratios. In this study a series of orogenic eclogites from different localities was analyzed to determine their HFSE concentrations and to contribute to the question if eclogites could form a hidden reservoir to account for the mass imbalance of the BSE. The results show that the orogenic eclogites have subchondritic Nb/Ta ratios and near chondritic Zr/Hf ratios. The investigated eclogites show no fractionation of Nb/Ta ratios and no enrichment of Nb compared to e.g. MOR-basalts, the likely precursor of these rocks. With an average Nb/Ta ratio of 14.9 these eclogites could not balance the differences between BSE and chondrite. Additionally, with an average Nb/Ta ≈ MORB they also cannot balance the small differences in the Nb/Ta of the crust and the mantle. LA-ICPMS analyses of rutiles in these eclogites reveal a zonation of Nb/Ta ratios in this mineral, with rutile cores having higher Nb/Ta than rutile rims. As a consequence, Laser Ablation data of rutiles have to be evaluated carefully and cannot necessarily reflect a bulk rock Nb and Ta composition, although over 90% of these elements reside in rutile.
A new global crop water model was developed to compute blue (irrigation) water requirements and crop evapotranspiration from green (precipitation) water at a spatial resolution of 5 arc minutes by 5 arc minutes for 26 different crop classes. The model is based on soil water balances performed for each crop and each grid cell. For the first time a new global data set was applied consisting of monthly growing areas of irrigated crops and related cropping calendars. Crop water use was computed for irrigated land and the period 1998 – 2002. In this documentation report the data sets used as model input and methods used in the model calculations are described, followed by a presentation of the first results for blue and green water use at the global scale, for countries and specific crops. Additionally the simulated seasonal distribution of water use on irrigated land is presented. The computed model results are compared to census based statistical information on irrigation water use and to results of another crop water model developed at FAO.
A data set of monthly growing areas of 26 irrigated crops (MGAG-I) and related crop calendars (CC-I) was compiled for 402 spatial entities. The selection of the crops consisted of all major food crops including regionally important ones (wheat, rice, maize, barley, rye, millet, sorghum, soybeans, sunflower, potatoes, cassava, sugar cane, sugar beets, oil palm, rapeseed/canola, groundnuts/peanuts, pulses, citrus, date palm, grapes/vine, cocoa, coffee), major water-consuming crops (cotton), and unspecified other crops (other perennial crops, other annual crops, managed grassland). The data set refers to the time period 1998-2002 and has a spatial resolution of 5 arc minutes by 5 arc minutes which is 8 km by 8 km at the equator. This is the first time that a data set of cell-specific irrigated growing areas of irrigated crops with this spatial resolution was created. The data set is consistent to the irrigated area and water use statistics of the AQUASTAT programme of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/main/index.stm) and the Global Map of Irrigation Areas (GMIA) (http://www.fao.org/ag/agl/aglw/aquastat/irrigationmap/index.stm). At the cell-level it was tried to maximise consistency to the cropland extent and cropland harvested area from the Department of Geography and Earth System Science Program of the McGill University at Montreal, Quebec, Canada and the Center for Sustainability and the Global Environment (SAGE) of the University of Wisconsin at Madison, USA (http://www.geog.mcgill.ca/~nramankutty/ Datasets/Datasets.html and http://geomatics.geog.mcgill.ca/~navin/pub/Data/175crops2000/). The consistency between the grid product and the input data was quantified. MGAG-I and CC-I are fully consistent to each other on entity level. For input data other than CC-I, the consistency of MGAG-I on cell level was calculated. The consistency of MGAG-I with respect to the area equipped for irrigation (AEI) of GMIA and to the cropland extent of SAGE was characterised by the sum of the cell-specific maximum difference between the MGAG-I monthly total irrigated area and the reference area when the latter was exceeded in the grid cell. The consistency of the harvested area contained in MGAG-I with respect to SAGE harvested area was characterised by the crop-specific sum of the cell-specific difference between MGAG-I harvested area and the SAGE harvested area when the latter was exceeded in the grid cell. In all three cases, the sums are the excess areas that should not have been distributed under the assumption that the input data were correct. Globally, this cell-level excess of MGAG-I as compared to AEI is 331,304 ha or only about 0.12 % of the global AEI of 278.9 Mha found in the original grid. The respective cell-level excess of MGAG-I as compared to the SAGE cropland extent is 32.2 Mha, corresponding to about 2.2 % of the total cropland area. The respective cell-level excess of MGAG-I as compared to the SAGE harvested area is 27 % of the irrigated harvested area, or 11.5 % of the AEI. In a further step that will be published later also rainfed areas were compiled in order to form the Global data set of monthly irrigated and rainfed crop areas around the year 2000 (MIRCA2000). The data set can be used for global and continental-scale studies on food security and water use. In the future, it will be improved, e.g. with a better spatial resolution of crop calendars and an improved crop distribution algorithm. The MIRCA2000 data set, its full documentation together with future updates will be freely available through the following long-term internet site: http://www.geo.uni-frankfurt.de/ipg/ag/dl/forschung/MIRCA/index.html. The research presented here was funded by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft, DFG) within the framework of the research project entitled "Consistent assessment of global green, blue and virtual water fluxes in the context of food production: regional stresses and worldwide teleconnections". The authors thank Navin Ramankutty and Chad Monfreda for making available the current SAGE datasets on cropland extent (Ramankutty et al., 2008) and harvested area (Monfreda et al., 2008) prior to their publication.
Long-term average groundwater recharge, which is equivalent to renewable groundwater resources, is the major limiting factor for the sustainable use of groundwater. Compared to surface water resources, groundwater resources are more protected from pollution, and their use is less restricted by seasonal and inter-annual flow variations. To support water management in a globalized world, it is necessary to estimate groundwater recharge at the global scale. Here, we present a best estimate of global-scale long-term average diffuse groundwater recharge (i.e. renewable groundwater resources) that has been calculated by the most recent version of the WaterGAP Global Hydrology Model WGHM (spatial resolution of 0.5° by 0.5°, daily time steps). The estimate was obtained using two state-of-the art global data sets of gridded observed precipitation that we corrected for measurement errors, which also allowed to quantify the uncertainty due to these equally uncertain data sets. The standard WGHM groundwater recharge algorithm was modified for semi-arid and arid regions, based on 15 independent estimates of diffuse groundwater recharge, which lead to an unbiased estimation of groundwater recharge in these regions. WGHM was tuned against observed long-term average river discharge at 1235 gauging stations by adjusting, individually for each basin, the partitioning of precipitation into evapotranspiration and total runoff. We estimate that global groundwater recharge was 12 666 km3/yr for the climate nor20 mal 1961–1990, i.e. 32% of total renewable water resources. In semi-arid and arid regions, mountainous regions, permafrost regions and in the Asian Monsoon region, groundwater recharge accounts for a lower fraction of total runoff, which makes these regions particularly vulnerable to seasonal and inter-annual precipitation variability and water pollution. Average per-capita renewable groundwater resources of countries vary 25 between 8m3/(capita yr) for Egypt to more than 1 million m3/(capita yr) for the Falkland Islands, the global average in the year 2000 being 2091m3/(capita yr). Regarding the uncertainty of estimated groundwater resources due to the two precipitation data sets, deviation from the mean is less than 1% for 50 out of the 165 countries considered, between 1 and 5% for 62, between 5 and 20% for 43 and between 20 and 80% for 10 countries. Deviations at the grid scale can be much larger, ranging between 0 and 186 mm/yr.
his paper investigates the value of observed river discharge data for global-scale hydrological modeling of a number of flow characteristics that are required for assessing water resources, flood risk and habitat alteration of aqueous ecosystems. An improved version of WGHM (WaterGAP Global Hydrology Model) was tuned in a way that simulated and observed long-term average river discharges at each station become equal, using either the 724-station dataset (V1) against which former model versions were tuned or a new dataset (V2) of 1235 stations and often longer time series. WGHM is tuned by adjusting one model parameter (γ) that affects runoff generation from land areas, and, where necessary, by applying one or two correction factors, which correct the total runoff in a sub-basin (areal correction factor) or the discharge at the station (station correction factor). The study results are as follows. (1) Comparing V2 to V1, the global land area covered by tuning basins increases by 5%, while the area where the model can be tuned by only adjusting γ increases by 8% (546 vs. 384 stations). However, the area where a station correction factor (and not only an areal correction factor) has to be applied more than doubles (389 vs. 93 basins), which is a strong drawback as use of a station correction factor makes discharge discontinuous at the gauge and inconsistent with runoff in the basin. (2) The value of additional discharge information for representing the spatial distribution of long-term average discharge (and thus renewable water resources) with WGHM is high, particularly for river basins outside of the V1 tuning area and for basins where the average sub-basin area has decreased by at least 50% in V2 as compared to V1. For these basins, simulated long-term average discharge would differ from the observed one by a factor of, on average, 1.8 and 1.3, respectively, if the additional discharge information were not used for tuning. The value tends to be higher in semi-arid and snow-dominated regions where hydrological models are less reliable than in humid areas. The deviation of the other simulated flow characteristics (e.g. low flow, inter-annual variability and seasonality) from the observed values also decreases significantly, but this is mainly due to the better representation of average discharge but not of variability. (3) The optimal sub-basin size for tuning depends on the modeling purpose. On the one hand, small basins between 9000 and 20 000 km2 show a much stronger improvement in model performance due to tuning than the larger basins, which is related to the lower model performance (with and without tuning), with basins over 60 000 km2 performing best. On the other hand, tuning of small basins decreases model consistency, as almost half of them require a station correction factor.
The report that follows gives the results of tests to deterrnine the compressive strength of artificial roof supports of various kinds used in the mining of anthracite in Pennsylvania. Some of the types tested also are used in bituminous coal mining in Pennsylvania and other parts of the United States. The report was rendered Bebruary 26, 1913, by the United States Bureau of Mines, then in the Interior Department, to the Pennsylvania State Anthracite Mine Cave Commission and was appended, without discussion, to the general report on mine caving made by that commission under date of March 1, 19 13, to the Governor and Legislature of Pennsylvanin. The commission's reporh remains unpublished. As numerous requests have been made for the test data obtained by the Bureau of Mines at its Pittsburgh Experiment Station in 1912-13 and as the data relate to the strength of artificial supports without reference to particular local places of application, they have permanent value in the designing of mine roof supports. It has therefore been deemed advisable to publish the results of the bureau's tests. In order that the reader may understand the reasons for makig these tests of roof supports and the procedure foIIowed by the Pennsylvania commission, its duties will be briefly described. The commission was created by an act of the Legislature of Pennsylvania, approved March 24, 1911, its members being appointed by the Governor of Pennsylvania under the terms of the act. There had been serious cave-ins of the surface in some of the cities and towns in the anthracite districts of Pennsylvania and particularly in the city of Scranton froin 1909 to 1911, destroying surface buildings, public and private, and seriously endangering life. ....
The thesis is devoted to the study of the Antarctic polar vortex, mainly by analyzing data collected during APE-GAIA (1999) and ASHOE (1994) campaigns and recorded by the ADEOS satellite (1996-1997), and to improvement of the chromato-graphic processing schemes. A general introduction and overview of the campaigns and instruments relevant to the present work are given in Chapters 1 and 2. A relatively large part of the thesis (Chapters 3-5) is on improvement of the analysis of raw chromatographic data recorded during in-flight measurements of the trace gases. A Gaussian non-straight-base-line method, i.e. the Gaussian processing scheme (Chapter 3), is developed for better evaluation of the chromatographic peak size. Furthermore, a statistical cross-correlation method (Chapter 5) based on statistical behaviour of the whole chromatogram series fNchrg recorded, e.g., during a research flight or laboratory calibration, is developed and applied to measure the low-concentration trace gases. As demonstrated for HAGAR's chromatograms (HAGAR - High Altitude Gas Analyzer), the combination of the Gaussian fitting scheme for individual chromatograms and the statistical cross-correlation method for a series of subsequent chromatograms considerably improves and stabilizes quantitative analysis of in-flight chromatographic data. In this case, the detection accuracy of weak and noisy chromatographic signals can be improved by up to 40 %. A particular attention is paid to the in-flight two-standard calibration method. For this method, a special procedure, that allows to evaluate and effectively remove a weak background chromatographic signal associated with residual molecules in the carrier gas N2, is proposed and coded (Chapter 4). The developed approaches and methods are completely automized and, therefore, can be used for processing of in-flight chromatograms of recent and future field campaigns. The main part of the thesis (Chapters 6-8) deals with a two-dimensional quasi-Lagrangian coordinate system ... , based on a long-lived stratospheric trace gas i, and its systematic use for i = N2O in order to describe the structure of a well-developed Antarctic polar vortex, linearization and compactization of the tracer-tracer correlations in the polar vortex core (i.e. the stratospheric dynamics in this area), and the differential ozone losses in the Antarctic polar vortex area. In the coordinate system ... (...-method, Chapter 6), which refers to a well-developed polar vortex, the mixing ratio Âi is the vertical coordinate and ... = .... i is the reference profile in the vortex core) is the meridional coordinate. The quasi-Lagrangian coordinates ... are much more long-lived comparing with the standard quasi-isentropic coordinates, potential temperature ... and equivalent latitude ..e, do not require explicit reference to geographic space, and therefore well-suited for studying the dynamics of the Antarctic polar vortex and the relevant ozone loss processes. By using the introduced coordinate system ... to analyze the well-developed Antarctic vortex investigated in the APE-GAIA campaign, it is shown, in concurrence with the conclusion of A. M. Lee et al. (2001), that the Antarctic vortex area can be described in terms of the well-mixed and well-isolated vortex core, relatively wide vortex boundary region and adjoining surf zone. In this case, the reference profile ... i , which is compact in a well-developed and isolated polar vortex core [J. B. Greenblatt et al. (2002)], can be found by combining airborne (and/or balloon) data with high-altitude satellite measurements. A criterion, which uses the local in-situ measurements of Âi = Âi(£) and attributes the inner vortex edge to a rapid change (±-step) in the meridional pro¯le of the mixing ratio..., is developed in Chapter 6 to determine the (Antarctic) inner vortex edge. In turn, the outer vortex edge of a well-developed Antarctic vortex is proposed to attribute to the position of a local maximum of ...H2O in the polar vortex area. For a well-developed Antarctic vortex, the ...-parametrization of tracer-tracer correlations allows to distinguish the tracer-tracer inter-relationships in the vortex core, vortex boundary region and surf zone (Chapter 7). This is clearly illustrated by analyzing the tracer-tracer relationships Âi ¡ ÂN2O obtained from the in-situ data of the APE-GAIA campaign for i = CFCl3 (CFC-11), CF2Cl2 (CFC-12), CBrClF2 (H-1211) and SF6. The solitary anomalous points in the ...CFC11 ¡ ÂN2O correlation, observed in the Antarctic vortex core during the APE-GAIA and ASHOE campaigns, are interpreted in terms of small-scale localized differential descent. As detailed in Chapter 8, the quasi-Lagrangian coordinate system fÂN2O; ¢ÂN2Og is an effective tool for evaluation of the differential ozone losses in the polar vortex area. With this purpose, a two-parametric reference function ...O3 = F(...), which characterizes the unperturbed O3 distribution in the early winter polar vortex area, is introduced to separate and quantify in terms of the meridional coordinate ...2O the differential ozone losses in the vortex core and vortex boundary region. The method is applied to analyze the ozone depletion in the Antarctic stratosphere during the austral spring 1999 (APE-GAIA campaign). In Chapter 9, the main results of the thesis are summarized.
Since the discovery of the ozone hole [Farman et al., 1985], the dynamics of the stratosphere and the transport of anthropogenic trace gases from the surface to the higher atmosphere has come into the focus of interest. In the tropics, air rises high into the stratosphere and is transported poleward. Trace gases like the CFCs1, photochemically stable in the troposphere, are thus transported into regions where they are photolyzed. The products of the photolysis reactions (eg. Cl, Br) interact in the catalytic ozone cycles and lead to enhanced ozone depletion. Regarding the transport of trace gases, the so-called lowermost stratosphere (LMS) is a very interesting region, where the troposphere and the stratosphere directly interact and air masses out of both regions are mixed. It is the lowest part of the stratosphere between the tropopause and the 380 K isentrope. Tropospheric air can enter this region directly via isentropic transport across the extra-tropical tropopause whereas stratospheric air descends across the 380 K isentrope via the mean meridional circulation. Stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE) controls the chemical composition of the LMS as well as of the tropopause region and thus has an important effect on the radiative and chemical balance of these regions and the climate system. STE exhibits a strong seasonality [Holton et al., 1995]. While downwelling of stratospheric air across the 380 K isentrope is the dominant process in winter, troposphere-to-stratosphere transport (TST) gains importance in summer, when the downwelling from the stratosphere is only weak. Isentropic transport across the extra-tropical tropopause occurs in regions where the tropopause is strongly disturbed and is connected to tropopause folds, streamer events, frontal zones, polar and subtropical jets, warm conveyor belts and cut-off low systems. A short introduction into STE, the LMS region, and methods to study atmospheric transport is given in Chapter 1. One useful tool to analyse the motions of air and transport processes are longlived trace gases. Since the lifetimes of these tracers are longer than the time scale of the transport processes they are involved in, the distribution of tracers in the atmosphere is mostly determined by dynamics. In the context of this thesis, measurements of such long-lived tracers were performed and used to study transport into the LMS region in the northern hemisphere. During the Vintersol/EuPLEx and ENVISAT validation campaigns in winter 2003, long-lived tracers such as N2O, CH4, CFC-12, CFC-11, H-1211, H2, SF6 and CO2 were measured with the High Altitude Gas Analyser (HAGAR), a two channel in-situ gas chromatograph combined with a CO2 instrument, based on nondispersive infrared absorption. Combined with measurements taken during campaigns in Forli/Italy (ENVISAT validation) in July and October 2002, tracer data were gathered from the tropopause up to altitudes around 20 km during 25 flights on board the Russian high-altitude aircraft M55 Geophysica. Thus, a substantial set of high quality tracer data has been obtained covering the polar vortex region as well as the mid latitudes of the northern hemisphere. Chapter 2 gives an overview of the HAGAR instrument and necessary improvements of the instrumental set up (implementing a CH4 channel) that were performed in the context of this thesis, and review data processing, the measurement campaigns. In order to study transport into the LMS it is assumed that air basically enters the LMS via three different pathways: a) quasi-isentropic transport from the troposphere, b) downward advection from the middle stratosphere through the 380 K surface and c) in the polar vortex region subsidence of air from of the polar vortex. Fractions of air originating in each of these source regions are determined with a simple mass balance calculation by using observations of a subset of the above species with distinct lifetimes (N2O, CH4, CFC-11, H-1211, H2 and O3) yielding complementary constraints on transport from each region. Details of the mass balance calculation and the results are presented in Chapter 3. During the mid-latitude measurement campaigns in Forlí the passing of a cut-off low system associated with an elongated streamer over Europe was observed. The impacts of this event on the trace gas mixing ratios in the LMS are examined in Chapter 4. Finally, a summary is given in Chapter 5.
This work analyses several granitic bodies of the Variscan Orogen of Central and Western Europe in order to improve our knowledge about different aspects of their evolution, regarding their ascent and emplacement mechanisms, as well as their deformation history. In the Iberian Massif two granitoid bodies, namely the La Bazana pluton and the Nisa-Alburquerque batholith, were studied in order to decipher their ascent and emplacement history. The La Bazana pluton is a small, sub-circular body in map view that intruded into rocks of the Ossa-Morena Zone in the core of a late upright antiform. Its three-dimensional drop-pipe shape, its internal dome foliation pattern and the structure of the host rock suggest that the magma ascended and emplaced diapirically. The Nisa-Alburquerque batholith is a large body that intruded into rocks of the Central Iberian Zone, the Central Unit, and the Ossa-Morena Zone. Its cartographic shape is elongate and parallel to the NW—SE to WNW—ESE Variscan structures. In the light of the available structural data and the gravimetric models, the intrusion is viewed as a continuous lateral magma flow from the eastern root guided towards the west through the southern limb of a kilometre-scale antiform. As mass-transfer mechanisms, a combination of rigid translation of the country rocks, stoping, and possibly ballooning is proposed. In the Bohemian Massif several small granitoid bodies showing a strong solid-state deformation were studied in order to integrate their tectonometamorphic history in the geotectonic framework of the south-western Bohemian Massif, focusing principally on the deformation phase referred to as D3. Four ductile deformation phases are proposed for the study area. D1 produced high-temperature fabrics under upper amphibolite to granulite facies conditions. Its kinematics is unknown. D2 occurred under amphibolite to upper greenschist facies conditions under N—S to NNW—SSE compression. It is responsible for a subvertical NW—SE striking foliation in migmatites developed under dextral simple shear and for the deformation at the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system at its earlier stages. Many granitoid dykes and stocks were found to be affected by sinistral shear along subvertical planes trending ENE to ESE. Since this deformation, which is called D3 in the present work, is not compatible with a N—S to NNW—SSE compression, it is proposed that these sinistral shear zones in granites do not belong to the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system and constitute themselves a separated one, which is called “D3 shear-zone system”. D3 took place under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite facies conditions (~480-550°C). Both the intrusion and the deformation of the granites affected by D3 occurred at deep to intermediate levels of the crust, whereas the deformation took place under NE—SW compression. Datings on two of the deformed granites yielded 324.4 ± 0.8 Ma and 315.0 ± 1.0 Ma: Thus, the age of D3 is most probably ~315 Ma. The intrusion of most of the sheared granitoids was pre-kinematic with respect to D3. After D3 the N—S to NNW—SSE compression which governed D2 was restored, giving way to the next deformation phase D4, which was linked to further deformation at and next to the principal shears of the Bayerischer Pfahl shear-zone system under greenschist facies conditions. The causes for the change of the stress field leading to a NE—SW compression during D3 might be related to (1) global changes in the dynamics of the tectonic plates in late Variscan times, (2) orogenic collapse leading to the sinking of the Teplá-Barrandian and lateral extrusion of the surrounding Moldanubian rocks, (3) distortion of the regional stress field by local intrusion of large stocks, such as the Saldenburg granite of the Fürstenstein Massif, or (4) distortion of the regional stress field due to the existence of ephemeral releasing bends in the Bayerischer Pfahl shear zone during its early evolution.
Physical soil properties feature high spatial variabilities which are known to affect geophysical measurements. However, these variations are not considered in most cases. The challenging task is to quantify the influence of soil heterogeneities on geophysical data. This question is analysed for DC resistivity and GPR measurements which are frequently used for near-surface explorations. To determine the pattern of electric soil properties in situ with the required high spatial resolution, geophysical measuring techniques are methodically enhanced. High-resolution dipole-dipole resistivity measurements are used to determine the electric conductivity distribution of the topsoil. Due to the small electrode separations, the actual electrode geometry has to be considered and an analytic expression for geometric factors is derived instead of assuming point electrodes. Two methods are used to determine soil permittivity with GPR:(i) the coefficient of reflection at the interface air-soil is measured with an air-launched horn antenna, (ii) the velocity of the groundwave is measured with a new setup using two receiver antennas enhancing the lateral resolution from in the best case 0.5 m for standard techniques to approximately 0.1 m with the new technique. With the optimised measuring techniques, the electric properties of sandy soils are determined in the field. Conductivity and permittivity show high spatial variability with correlation lengths of a few decimetres. Geostatistical simulation techniques are used to generate synthetic random media featuring the same statistical properties as in the field. FD calculations are carried out with this media to provide realistic synthetic data of resistivity and GPR measurements. Conductivity variations as determined in the field generate significant variations of simulated Schlumberger sounding curves resulting in uncertainties of the inverted models. Even in pedologically homogeneous sandy soil, moisture pattern and resulting permittivity variations cause strong GPR diffractions as demonstated by FD calculations. This influences the detectability of small objects such as e.g. landmines or of large reflectors as e.g. the groundwater table. Conductivity variations as typical for soils showed to have a minor effect on GPR measurements than variations of permittivity. In summary, geostatistical analysis and simulation provide a powerful tool to simulate geophysical measurements under field conditions including soil heterogeneity which can be used to quantify the uncertainty of field measurements by geologic noise.
An evaluation scheme is presented in this paper which can be used to assess groundwater vulnerability according to the requirements of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). The evaluation scheme results in a groundwater vulnerability map identifying areas of high, medium and low vulnerability, as necessary for the measurement planning of the WFD. The evaluation scheme is based on the definition of the vulnerability of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). It considers exposure, sensitivity and the adaptive capacity of the region. The adaptive capacity is evaluated in an actors' platform, which was constituted for the region in the PartizipA ("Participative modelling, Actor and Ecosystem Analysis in Regions with Intensive Agriculture") project. As a result of the vulnerability assessment, 21% of the catchment area was classified as being highly vulnerable, whereas 73% has medium vulnerability and 6% has low vulnerability. Thus, a groundwater vulnerability assessment approach is presented, which can be used in practice on a catchment scale for the WFD measurement planning.
Global modelling of continental water storage changes : sensitivity to different climate data sets
(2007)
Since 2002, the GRACE satellite mission provides estimates of the Earth's dynamic gravity field with unprecedented accuracy. Differences between monthly gravity fields contain a clear hydrological signal due to continental water storage changes. In order to evaluate GRACE results, the state-of-the-art WaterGAP Global Hydrological Model (WGHM) is applied to calculate terrestrial water storage changes on a global scale. WGHM is driven by different climate data sets to analyse especially the influence of different precipitation data on calculated water storage. The data sets used are the CRU TS 2.1 climate data set, the GPCC Full Data Product for precipitation and data from the ECMWF integrated forecast system. A simple approach for precipitation correction is introduced. WGHM results are then compared with GRACE data. The use of different precipitation data sets leads to considerable differences in computed water storage change for a large number of river basins. Comparing model results with GRACE observations shows a good spatial correlation and also a good agreement in phase. However, seasonal variations of water storage as derived from GRACE tend to be significantly larger than those computed by WGHM, regardless of which climate data set is used.