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We can see an increasing consumption of meat together with the corresponding behavioral adaptations in early hominins, such as Homo erectus. This new development was driven by one or more behavioral adaptations, such as a shift to a higher-quality diet, increased social interactions and/or changes in the life history strategies. The methods by which these hominins obtained meat—through scavenging the carcasses of large herbivores or hunting themselves—remain a topic of debate. They seem to have thrived in expanding grasslands, which offered few resources except for herds of large, gregarious mammals. In our study, we developed an agent-based model that simulates the behavior of a group of hunter-gatherers foraging in a reconstructed tropical grassland environment. The environmental parameters, including plant availability and prey population densities, are derived from the Serengeti National Park. In this model, agents gather or hunt various species either alone or as a group, using strategies early hominins may already have access to. The basic behavior and the implemented hunting strategies are based on data from recent hunter-gatherer societies living in tropical grasslands. Our model demonstrates how foragers may have thrived in tropical grasslands by either adopting fast hunting strategies, which often require access to sophisticated hunting tools, or by cooperating extensively, which would rely on an enhanced social structure to promote cooperative behavior. Our model can be used to study other scenarios by offering the option to change the environmental conditions and aspects of the agent behavior.
Correction to: Apidologie (2020) 51:1182–1198
https://doi.org/10.1007/s13592-020-00796-9
The article Insights into Ethiopian honey bee diversity based on wing geomorphometric and mitochondrial DNA analyses, written by Hailu, T.G., D’Alvise, P., Tofilski, A. et al., was originally published Online First without Open Access. After publication in volume 51, issue 6, page 1182-1198, the author decided to opt for Open Choice and to make the article an Open Access publication. Therefore, the copyright of the article has been changed to © The Author(s) 2020 and the article is forthwith distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution, and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article is included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. Open Access funding enabled and organized by Projekt DEAL.
Traditional beekeeping has been playing important socio-economic roles in Ethiopia for millennia. The country is situated in northeast Africa, where ranges of major evolutionary lineages of Apis mellifera adjoin. However, studies on the classification and distribution of subspecies and lineages of honey bees in the country are partly inconsistent, either proposing multiple subspecies and lineages or a unique A. m. simensis. This study was conducted with the aim of elucidating Ethiopian honey bees in reference to African subspecies and major global lineages using wing geometric morphometrics and COI-COII mitochondrial DNA analyses. For this purpose, 660 worker bees were collected from 66 colonies representing highland, midland, and lowland zones in different locations. Both methods indicated that the samples from this study form a distinct cluster together with A. m. simensis reference. In addition, forewing venation patterns showed that most of the Ethiopian samples are separate from all reference subspecies, except A. m. simensis. Analysis of COI-COII sequences revealed five DraI haplotypes (Y2, Y1, A1, and O5’), of which one was new denoted as Y3. Moreover, centroid size strongly associated with elevation. In conclusion, the results supported that Ethiopian honey bees are distinct both at lineage and subspecies levels; however, there is an indication of lineage O in the north.
Similar to chloroplast loci, mitochondrial markers are frequently used for genotyping, phylogenetic studies, and population genetics, as they are easily amplified due to their multiple copies per cell. In a recent study, it was revealed that the chloroplast offers little variation for this purpose in central European populations of beech. Thus, it was the aim of this study to elucidate, if mitochondrial sequences might offer an alternative, or whether they are similarly conserved in central Europe. For this purpose, a circular mitochondrial genome sequence from the more than 300-year-old beech reference individual Bhaga from the German National Park Kellerwald-Edersee was assembled using long and short reads and compared to an individual from the Jamy Nature Reserve in Poland and a recently published mitochondrial genome from eastern Germany. The mitochondrial genome of Bhaga was 504,730 bp, while the mitochondrial genomes of the other two individuals were 15 bases shorter, due to seven indel locations, with four having more bases in Bhaga and three locations having one base less in Bhaga. In addition, 19 SNP locations were found, none of which were inside genes. In these SNP locations, 17 bases were different in Bhaga, as compared to the other two genomes, while 2 SNP locations had the same base in Bhaga and the Polish individual. While these figures are slightly higher than for the chloroplast genome, the comparison confirms the low degree of genetic divergence in organelle DNA of beech in central Europe, suggesting the colonisation from a common gene pool after the Weichsel Glaciation. The mitochondrial genome might have limited use for population studies in central Europe, but once mitochondrial genomes from glacial refugia become available, it might be suitable to pinpoint the origin of migration for the re-colonising beech population.
Climate change imposes severe stress on European forests, with forest degradation already visible in several parts of Europe. Thus adaptation of forestry applications in Mediterranean areas and central Europe is necessary. Proactive forestry management may include the planting of Mediter- ranean oak species in oak-bearing Central European regions. Five replicate common gardens of Greek and Italian provenances of Quercus ilex, Q. pubescens and Q. frainetto seedlings (210 each per plantation) were established in Central Italy, NE Greece (two) and Southern Germany (two, including Q. robur) to assess their performance under different climate conditions. Climate and soil data of the plantation sites are given and seedling establishment was monitored for survival and morphological parameters. After 3 years (2019) survival rates were satisfactory in the German and Italian sites, whereas the Greek sites exerted extremely harsh conditions for the seedlings, including extreme frost and drought events. In Germany, seedlings suffered extreme heat and drought periods in 2018 and 2019 but responded well. Provenances were ranked for each country for their performance after plan- tation. In Greece and Italy, Q. pubescens was the best performing species. In Germany, Q. pubescens and Q. robur performed best. We suggest that Greek or Italian provenances of Q. pubescens may be effectively used for future forestation purposes in Central Europe. For the establishment of Quercus plantations in Northern Greece, irrigation appears to be a crucial factor in seedling establishment.
In recent years, reports of elephants causing damage in rural villages by destroying houses and foraging on stored food have been increasing, but little is known about the determinants and magnitude of this damage. In this study, we have examined the extent of property damage by elephants (Loxodonta africana and Elephas maximus), in one African and two Asian study areas over a six‐year period. A total of 1,172 damaged constructions were observed on site, involving detailed damage assessment by trained enumerators and standardized interviews with witnesses. Depending on the study area, between 67.1 and 86.4% of damage events were attributed to single, individual elephants or pairs of males. The majority of properties were damaged in search for food (62.5–76.7% respectively). Property damage caused higher mean losses than crop damage on farmland in all study areas. Results suggest that property damage by elephants has been largely underestimated and needs to form a focus in future human–elephant conflict research. We suggest a need to reduce the attractiveness of villages by storing food in locked and safe places, away from sleeping areas and to foster the development of elephant safe stores, appropriate to the particular cultural background of the target area.
Good quality data on precipitation are a prerequisite for applications like short-term weather forecasts, medium-term humanitarian assistance, and long-term climate modelling. In Sub-Saharan Africa, however, the meteorological station networks are frequently insufficient, as in the Cuvelai-Basin in Namibia and Angola. This paper analyses six rainfall products (ARC2.0, CHIRPS2.0, CRU-TS3.23, GPCCv7, PERSIANN-CDR, and TAMSAT) with respect to their performance in a crop model (APSIM) to obtain nutritional scores of a household’s requirements for dietary energy and further macronutrients. All products were calibrated to an observed time series using Quantile Mapping. The crop model output was compared against official yield data. The results show that the products (i) reproduce well the Basin’s spatial patterns, and (ii) temporally agree to station records (r = 0.84). However, differences exist in absolute annual rainfall (range: 154 mm), rainfall intensities, dry spell duration, rainy day counts, and the rainy season onset. Though calibration aligns key characteristics, the remaining differences lead to varying crop model results. While the model well reproduces official yield data using the observed rainfall time series (r = 0.52), the products’ results are heterogeneous (e.g., CHIRPS: r = 0.18). Overall, 97% of a household’s dietary energy demand is met. The study emphasizes the importance of considering the differences among multiple rainfall products when ground measurements are scarce.
The estimation model PhytoCalc allows a non-destructive quantification of dry weight and nutrient pools of understorey plants in forests by using the relationship between species biomass, cover and mean shoot length. The model has been validated with independent samples in several German forest types and can be a useful tool in forest monitoring. However, in open areas within forests (e.g. clearcuts), the current model version underestimates biomass and produces unreliable nutrient pool estimations. Thus, tissue density, as approximated by leaf dry matter content (LDMC), is systematically higher under high light compared to low light conditions. We demonstrate that the ratio of LDMC under clearcut conditions to LDMC under forest conditions can be used to adjust the PhytoCalc model to clearcut conditions. We investigated the LDMC ratio of five exemplary species commonly occurring on clearcuts. Integrating the square of the ratio as a correction factor improved estimates of biomass to more than 70% fit between observations and predictions. Results also suggest this ratio can be used to correct nutrient concentrations modelled in PhytoCalc, which tend to be overestimated in clearcuts. As morphological groups of plant species exhibit significantly different ratios, we advise using group-specific correction factors for clearcut adjustments in the future.
Winterroggen (Secale cereale L.) erwirbt durch längerfristiges Wachsen bei tiefen Temperaturen eine Anpassung an Kälte und Frost und entwickelt eine erhöhte Toleranz gegenüber kälte-induzierter Photoinhibierung. Diese Anpassung wird als Kältehärtung bezeichnet. Die erworbene Toleranz gegenüber kälteinduzierter Photoinhibierung geht nach drei Tagen Enthärtung bei einer Temperatur von 220C wieder verloren. Die Zielsetzung der Promotion war es, nach differentiell exprimierten Genen zu suchen, die nicht als Antwort auf kurzzeitigen Kältestreß hochreguliert werden, sondern Gene zu isolieren die im Zuge länger einwirkender Kälte in Winterroggenblättern verstärkt exprimiert werden. Werden die mRNAs aus kältegehärteten (CHL) mit den mRNAs aus enthärteten Roggenblättern (DHL) verglichen, so können Gene isoliert werden, die in CHL stärker exprimiert werden. Diese differentiell exprimierten Gene können, da sie nach Enthärtung deutlich seltener exprimiert werden, eine limitierende Funktion bei Kältehärtung einnehmen. Um diese Gene isolieren zu können wurden zwei molekularbiologische Methoden, "Suppression Subtractive Hybridisation"-PCR und "Differential Display"-PCR angewendet. Mit diesen Methoden konnten insgesamt zwölf verschiedene cDNA-Fragmente differentiell exprimierter Gene isoliert werden. Im Vergleich mit DHL sind in CHL die Transkriptmengen für neun cDNA-Fragmente isolierter Gene erhöht. Auch die Transkriptmenge des Chloroplasten-kodierte Gens für LSU ist in CHL bei einem Vergleich mit DHL gesteigert. Die isolierten cDNA-Fragmente von differentiell exprimierten Genen kodieren für Proteine aus den verschiedensten Teilbereichen des pflanzlichen Stoffwechsels und sind nachfolgend aufgelistet. Photosynthesestoffwechsel: SSU und LSU (kleine und große Untereinheit von RubisCO), LHCIIb (Lichtsammelkomplex IIb), Fructose-1,6-bisphosphatase, Transketolase, Genexpression: RNA-bindendes Protein, Transkriptionselongationsfaktor, Nucleotidstoffwechsel: UMP Synthase, Antioxidativ wirkendes Enzym: PMSR (Peptid-Methioninsulfoxidreduktase) Es konnten cDNA-Fragmente dreier bekannter Gene und eines unbekannten Gens (Klon 5C, zeigte Homologie zu einer Sequenz aus Oryza sativa) isoliert werden, deren Expression in DHL spezifisch erhöht ist. Energiestoffwechsel: H+ATPase, Pathogenabwehr/ programmierter Zelltod: Llsl Gen (lethal leaf spot Gen 1), Proteinstoffwechsel: Disulfidisomerase Neben der Analyse der Expression auf RNA-Ebene wurden Untersuchungen zur Expression auf Proteinebene vorgenommen. Western Blut Analysen zeigten, daß die geringeren Transkriptmengen von rbcS und rbcL in DHL und NHL nicht mit einem parallelen Rückgang der Proteinmengen von SSU und LSU korrelieren. Die Proteinmengen an SSU und LSU in CHL, DHL und NHL weisen keine allzu großen Unterschiede auf Sowohl die Transkiptmenge des Gens Lhcb als auch die Menge des LHCIIb-Proteins war in enthärteten Winterrogenblättern in Vergleich zu gehärteten Winterroggenblättern vermindert. Auch für das antioxidativ wirkende Enzym PMSR (Peptid-Methionin-Sulfoxid-Reduktase) konnten in CHL höhere Transkriptmengen als in DHL und in NHL nachgewiesen werden. PMSR ist ein ubiquitär verbreitetes Enzym, das eine nachgewiesene wichtige Funktion bei der Abwehr von reaktiven Sauerstoffformen (ROS) ausübt. Den bislang untersuchten antioxidativen Schutz-Systemen konnte bei der Kältehärtung keine begrenzende Funktion zugeschrieben werden. Ein Schwerpunkt der Promotion lag deshalb auf der Untersuchung vom ScPMSR als antioxidativ wirkendes Enzym im Zusammenhang mit Kältehärtung. Die Transkriptmenge an ScPMSR erhöht sich nach dem längerfristigen Einwirken von Kälte. Zur Durchführung von Immunoblot Analysen mußte zunächst ein Antikörper gegen ScPMSR hergestellt werden. Mittels eines aus einer cDNA-Bank isolierten cDNA-Klons von ScPMSR wurde rekombinantes ScPMSR-Protein in E. coli Zellen produziert und nach der Reinigung zur Herstellung spezifischer Antiseren eingesetzt. Bei dem in dieser Arbeit isolierten ScPMSR handelt es sich um ein cytoplasmatisches Isoenzym. In Western Blot Analysen mit dem ScPMSR-Antikörper konnte in Gesamtproteinextrakten aus CI-IL, DHL und NHL die ScPMSR-Proteinbande (23kDa) nachgewiesen werden. In CHL und in NHL die in niedrige Temperaturen umgesetzt wurden liegt noch eine zusätzliche Proteinbande einer Größe von 68kDa vor. Werden CHL in 220C umgesetzt wird diese Bande innerhalb von 48h deutlich schwächer. Im Gegensatz dazu verstärkt sich die 68kDa-Proteinbande kontinuierlich, wenn NHL bis zu 48h in tiefe Temperaturen gestellt werden. Die Gesamtmengen an PMSR-Protein (23 kDa + 68kDa) zeigen nicht allzu große Unterschiede bei CHL, DHL und NHL und korrelieren damit nicht mit der geringeren Transkriptmenge an PMSR in DHL und NHL. Rechnerisch könnte es sich bei dem bei Kälte gebildeten 68kDa großen Proteinaggregat um ein PMSR-Trimer handeln. Dieses Aggregat konnte allerdings in vitro durch die stark denaturierend wirkenden Stoffe Guanidinhydrochlorid und SDS nicht in nachweisbare Untereinheiten aufgelöst werden. Bei dem bei Kälte gebildeten Proteinaggregat könnte es sich um die enzymatisch aktive Form eines PMSR-Trimers handeln, das bei Kälte der Abwehr von ROS dient. Insgesamt deuten die Resultate darauf hin, daß ScPMSR bei der Kältehärtung von S. cereale von Bedeutung ist. Aufgrund der geringer Substratspezifität kann PMSR bei Kälte als weitgefächertes Reparaturenzym fungieren. Nicht zuletzt wird der zyklische Oxidations- und Reduktionsprozeß von Methionin und Methioninseitenketten auch als "sink" für ROS angesehen. Es bedarf jedoch zusätzlicher Untersuchungen, um die Rolle von ScPMSR bei Kältehärtung von Secale cereale als antioxidativ wirkendes Enzym weiter definieren zu können.