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Background and Purpose of this Meeting With an opening reception sponsored by Thomson Scientific on the evening of Thursday, October 5, the University Library of Frankfurt and the German-North American Resources Partnership (GNARP) and will be hosting an important two-day conference this Autumn in Frankfurt, Germany: »The World According to GNARP: Prospects for Transatlantic Library Partnership in the Digital Age« Sessions at this meeting will explore the wealth of library resources - archival, print, and digital - available to students and researchers (in Germany and the United States) in five selected subject areas: North American Studies, German Studies, Judaica, Africana, and South Asia/India, highlighting both existing avenues (and obstacles) for transatlantic resource sharing along with future prospects. In addition, several other important topics will be highlighted through individual presentations and panel discussions: the future of German as a language of the sciences; existing and planned electronic journal archives in Germany and the U.S.; print and digital repositories; and a special panel on »comparative cataloging cultures« on both sides of the Atlantic. The »World According to GNARP« conference will be taking place simultaneously with the Frankfurt Book Fair, the largest book-related event in the world, attracting annually 285,000 visitors (2005), thus giving participants who arrive early the chance to combine attendance at both the Book Fair and Conference. A cultural event and dinner in Frankfurt are planned for Friday 6th October.
The rate of species extinctions due to anthropogenic activities has dramatically increased within the past few centuries (Dirzo & Raven, 2003; Novacek & Cleland, 2001). Although the mechanisms and ultimate causes leading to the extinction of species remain largely unclear (Frankham et al., 2002), five threats to global biodiversity have frequently been referred to as the most important: habitat destruction and fragmentation, global climate change, hunting and overuse of food resources, biological invasions and environmental pollution (Dudgeon et al., 2006; Lewis, 2006; Novacek & Cleland, 2001). Different research fields, as conservation biology, ecology and ecotoxicology, investigate the effects of these factors on organisms and found strong evidence for their negative impact on regional and global biodiversity.
In most cases, natural populations will be impacted not only by one threat, but rather a combination of them (Buckley & Roughgarden, 2004; Kappelle et al., 1999). Multiple environmental stress factors can have cumulative negative effects on the survival of populations (Sih et al., 2004). To understand, how natural populations respond to combinations of different stress factors is thus of crucial importance in order to understand our present and future impact on all scales of biodiversity (Warren et al., 2001).
The effects of anthropogenically introduced chemicals on organisms and ecosystems are investigated in the field of ecotoxicology. Research in this area has led to a large body of information concerning the impact of chemical stress on the fitness of model species in the laboratory. In contrast to this, there is an obvious lack of knowledge on the effects of contaminants on natural populations and communities (Bickham et al., 2000; Bourdeau et al., 1990). For instance, ecotoxicologists have just started to investigate the impact of environmental pollution on the genetic variability of natural populations (Bickham et al., 2000; Whitehead et al., 2003). Genetic variation provides the raw material for populations in order to adapt to changing environmental conditions and is thus the substrate for evolution and long-term survival of populations and species (Frankham, 2005). The amount of genetic variation in populations is positively correlated with the effective population size (Frankham, 1996). Habitat destruction and fragmentation has divided the ranges of many species into small and isolated refuges. Without migration from adjacent habitats, isolated populations will decrease in their level of genetic diversity through random loss of alleles (Hedrick, 2000). Frankham (1995) for instance, showed that 32 of the 37 endangered species (which occur in small populations per definition) of different animals and plant taxa display reduced levels of heterozygosity compared to closely related and more frequent species.
In strongly human impacted landscapes, both factors, environmental pollution and habitat destruction, can be expected to occur frequently together. It is thus of crucial importance to investigate the impact of reduced genetic diversity and inbreeding on the response to chemical stress. In addition, chemical exposure has frequently been discussed to have an impact on the extent of genetic variability in exposed populations (Guttman, 1994; Staton et al., 2001; van Straalen & Timmermans, 2002). However, evidence for this 'genetic erosion hypothesis' remained scarce to date, most likely because of the difficulty to single out the impact of pollution stress from a background of multiple factors which influence patterns of genetic variability in natural populations (Belfiore, 2001; Staton et al., 2001; van Straalen & Timmermans, 2002).
The Frankfurt University Library possesses one of the outstanding Africana Collections in continental Europe; its regional anddisciplinary scope is unique in Germany. Today about 5,000 new acquisitions a year have accumulated over 200,000 items on Africa south of the Sahara. Some 50,000 historical and rare photographs are fully digitized and freely accessible. Together with a collection of around 18,000 books stemming from the collections of the German Colonial Society at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th century they constitute the historical foundations of the collection. Recently the University Library Frankfurt and the library of the GIGA Institute of African Affairs, Hamburg, started the project ilissAfrica (internet library sub-Saharan Africa), a central subject gateway for online resources and a powerful tool for bibliographic research. These new services will be indispensable for researchers and librarians of African Studies and will promote African studies worldwide.
A commentary on the Synopsis Fungorum in America Boreali Media Degentium, by L. D. de Schweinitz
(1856)
Experimente zum radiativen Elektroneneinfang (REC, Radiative Electron Capture), der Zeitumkehrung der Photoionisation, wie er in Stößen hochgeladener, relativistischer Schwerionen mit leichten Gasatomen auftritt, ermöglicht einen einzigartigen Zugang zum Studium der Photonen-Materie-Wechselwirkung im Bereich extrem starker Coulombfeldern. So ist die REC-Strahlung im relativistischen Bereich zum einen geprägt durch das Auftreten von höheren elektrischen und magnetischen Multipolordnungen und zum anderen durch starke Retardierungseffekte. In Folge dessen wurde der REC-Prozeß in den vergangen Jahren sehr detailliert untersucht, wobei sich die experimentelle und theoretische Forschung auf die Emissionscharakteristik der REC-Photonen konzentrierte, wie z.B. auf Untersuchungen von Winkelverteilungen und Linienprofilen. Mittlerweile kann der REC-Prozeß als ein - selbst für die schwersten Ionen - wohlverstandener Effekt angesehen werden. Allerdings entzog sich den Experimenten bislang eine zur Beschreibung der Photonenmission wesentlich Größe, näamlich die Polarisation der Strahlung. Die lineare Polarisation der REC-Strahlung, wie sie in Stößen zwischen leichten Atomen und den schwersten, hochgeladenen Ionen vorhergesagt wird, war der Gegenstand der vorliegende Arbeit, in der es erstmals gelang, die diese für den konkreten Fall des Einfangs in die K-Schale von nackten Uranionen nachzuweisen und im Detail zu untersuchen. Die hierzu notwendigen experimentellen Untersuchungen erfolgten am Speicherring ESR der GSI-Darmstadt für das Stoßsystem U92+ -> N2 und für Projektilenergien, die im Bereich zwischen 98 und 400 MeV/u lagen. Besonders hervorzuheben ist der Einsatz eines segmentierten Germaniumdetektors, der speziell für den Nachweis linear polarisierter Strahlung im Energiebereich oberhalb 100 keV entwickelte wurde. Die lineare Polarisation der Strahlung wurde hierbei durch eine Analyse der Comptonstreuung innerhalb des Detektors gewonnen. Die durch eine präzise Analyse der Comptonstreuverteilungen gewonnenen Daten zeigen eine ausgeprägte lineare Polarisierung der REC-Strahlung in der Streuebene, die zudem eine starke Abhängigkeit als Funktion der Stoßenergie und des Beobachtungwinkels aufweist. Der detaillierte Vergleich mit nicht-relativistischen und relativistischen Vorhersagen ermöglichte darüberhinaus den Nachweis für das Auftreten starker relativistischer Effekte, die sich allerdings depolarisierend auswirken. Das Experiment wurde am internen Target des ESR-Speicherrings durchgeführt, wobei der Photonennachweis mittels mehrerer Ge(i)-Detektoren erfolgte, die die Ionen-Target-Wechselwirkungszone unter Beobachtungswinkeln zwischen nahe Null und 150 Grad einsahen. Alle Photonendetektoren wurden in Koinizidenz mit einem Teilchendetektor betrieben, um so die volle Charakteristik des REC-Prozesses zu erfassen, also den Einfang eines Targetelektrons in die nackten Uranionen (U92+) unter Emission eines Photons. Für den Polarisationsnachweis entscheidend war der Einsatz eines Germanium-Pixel-Detektors, der abwechselnd unter den Winkeln von 60 und 90 Grad betrieben wurde. Dieser Detektor verfügt über eine 4x4 Pixelmatrix (Pixelgröße: 7x7 mm), wobei die elektronische Information jedes Pixels (Energiesignale und schnelle Zeitsignale) separat registriert und aufgezeichnet wurde. Hierdurch war es möglich Ereignisse, die koinzident in zwei Pixeln erfolgten, zu detektieren und zu analysieren. Dies ist die eigentliche Voraussetzung für den Nachweis der linearen Polarisation bei hohen Photonenenergien, bei dem die Abhängigkeit des differenziellen Wirkungsquerschnitts für Comptonstreuung von der linearen Polarisation der einfallenden Photonen ausgenutzt wird (siehe Klein-Nishina Formel Eq. 2.7). Der Nachweis der Comptonstreuung erfolgt hierbei durch die Detektion des Compton-Rückstoßelektrons (deltaE) und des gestreuten Comptonphotons (hw'), die jeweils separat, aber koinzident in zwei unterschiedlichen Segmenten des Detektors nachgewiesen werden. Hier sei betont, dass für Germanium bereits ab Photonenenergien von ca. 160 keV die Absorption der Strahlung durch den Compton-Effekt über die Photoabsorption dominiert und somit das Ausnutzen des Compton-Effekts prinzipiell eine sehr effektive Technik ist. Der Auswertung der Datenfkam wesentlich zugute, dass der Germanium-Detektor über eine im Vergleich zu Szintillations- oder Gaszählern gute Energieauflösung von ca. 1.8 keV bei 122 keV verfügt. Somit kann durch Bilden der Summenenergie hw = hw' + deltaE für koinzidente Ereignisse die Energie des einfallenden Photons (hw) rekonstruieren werden und als zwingende Bedingung dafür herangezogen werden, dass es sich bei dem Ereignis im Detektor um ein Compton-Event gehandelt hat. Für den Fall linearer Polarisation ist eine wesentliche Aussage der Klein-Nishina-Formel, dass die maximale Intensität für die Compton gestreuten Photonen senkrecht zur Polarisationsebene zu erwarten ist. Tatsächlich zeigen bereits die während des Experiments aufgenommenen Rohdaten für den Fall der untersuchten REC-Strahlung, die durch den Einfang in die K-Schale des Projektils entsteht, dass es sich hierbei um eine stark polarisierte Strahlung handelt, wobei eine erhöhte Intensität für Comptonstreuung senkrecht zur Stoßebene (für den REC-Prozeß definiert durch die Ionenstrahlachse und den Impuls des REC-Photons) festgestellt wurde (vgl. Fig. 7.3). Zur genauen qualitativen Analyse der Meßdaten wurden alle möglichen Pixelkombinationen der (4x4) Detektorgeometrie ausgewertet, wobei jedoch koinzidente Ereignisse benachbarter Segmente ausgeschlossen wurden, um den hier vorhandenenen Einfluß elektronischer Übersprecher zu eliminieren. Zudem erfolgte die Analyse der Daten unter Berücksichtigung verschiedenster Effekte, die einen Einfluß auf die Nachweiseffizienzen für die Compton gestreuten Photonen haben könnten. An prominenter Stelle ist hier die Korrektur zu nennen, die durch die Detektordicke von 1,5 cm und der Pixelgröße von 7x7 cm2 hervorgerufen wird. Zu betonen ist hier, dass für die Auswertung nur relative Effizienzen eine Rolle spielen und so der Einfluß systematischer Fehler, hervorgerufen durch Effizienzkorrekturen, stark reduziert werden konnte (für eine so gewonnene, vollständige Compton-Streuverteilung sei auf Abbildung 9.1 verwiesen, in der die Intensitätsverteilung für Compton-Streuung dargestellt ist). Es sei auch hervorgehoben, dass der Nachweis der Polarisation durch Messungen von vollständigen Compton-Intensitätverteilung im Detektor erfolgte, was das hier diskutierte Experiment wesentlich von konventionellen Polarisationsexperimenten für harte Röntgen- und gamma-Strahlung unterscheidet. Üblicherweise wird in diesen Experimenten die Comptonstreuung ausschließlich in der Reaktionsebene und senkrecht dazu nachgewiesen. Generell weisen die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gewonnen Compton-Streuverteilungen für den K-REC-Prozeß ein ausgeprägtes Maxium senkrecht zur Reaktionsebene auf und bestätigen somit den bereits aus den Rohdaten abgeleiteten Befund, dass die Polarisationsebene der KREC Strahlung in der Reaktionsebene des Stosses liegt. In der Tat kann dieser Befund für alle Energien und Beobachtungswinkel bestätigt werden, die in dem hier diskutierten Experiment verwendet wurden. Hier sei zudem darauf hingewiesen, dass es durch die Erfassung der vollständigen Compton-Streuverteilung möglich war, die Orientierung der Polarisationsebene in Bezug auf die Stoßebene mit hoher Präzision zu erfassen. So konnte z.B. bei der Stossenergie von 400 MeV/u und dem Winkel von 90 Grad, die Orientierung der Comptonstreuverteilung in Bezug auf die Stoßebene zu ph=90 Grad bestimmt werden. Dieser Befund könnte für die Planung zukünftiger Experimente zum Nachweis polarisierter Ionenstrahlen entscheidend sein, da eine Abweichung von der ph = 90 Grad Symmetrie nur durch das Vorhandensein polarisierter Teilchen erklärt werden kann. Dieser Effekt, der in neuesten theoretischen Behandlungen im Detail untersucht wurde, stellt gleichsam einen neuen Zugang zur Bestimmung des Polarisationsgrads der Projektile dar. Hierdurch wird die Stärke der hier angewandten Technik verdeutlicht, die auf dem Einsatz eines ortsempfindlichen Germanium-Pixel- Detektors beruht. Die Bestimmung des genauen Polarisationsgrades für die K-REC-Strahlung erfolgte durch eine X2-Anpassung der Klein-Nishina-Formel an die experimentellen Daten. Die hieraus resultierenden Daten zeigen für alle Strahlenergien und Beobachtungsgwinkel eine starke Polarisation von etwa 80%, wobei die experimentelle Unsicherheit im 10% Bereich liegt. Letztere ist im wesentlichen auf die statistische Genauigkeit zurückzuführen. Die Daten wurden zudem eingehend mit theoretischen Vorhersagen verglichen. Die Theorie stützt sich auf eine vollständige relativistische Beschreibung des REC-Prozesses unter Verwendung exakter Wellenfunktionen für das Kontinuum und den 1s Zustand in wasserstoffartigem Uran. Typischer weise mußten bei den Rechnungen sowohl elektrische wie auch magnetische Multipolterme bis hin zu L=20 verwendet werden, um Konvergenz zu erreichen. Der Vergleich zeigt eine hervorragende Übereinstimmung zwischen Experiment und Theorie. Zudem verdeutlicht der Vergleich mit der ebenfalls diskutierten Vorhersage der nicht-relativistischen Dipolnäherung die Bedeutung relativistischer Effekte (vor allem das Auftreten höherer elektrischer und magnetischer Multipole), die für die Emission der REC-Strahlung bei hohen, relativistischen Energien und hohem Z charakteristisch sind. Offensichtlich wirken sich diese Effekte stark depolarisierend aus. Dass in der Tat eine Zunahme der depolarisierenden Effekte mit einer Zunahme der Strahlenergie verbunden ist, wird auch durch die Daten dokumentiert, die für den Beobachtungswinkel von 60 Grad als Funktion des Projektilenergie untersucht wurden. Die in der vorliegenden Arbeit gewonnenen Resultate für die Polarisation der REC-Strahlung ebenso wie die neuartige Experimenttechnik, die hierbei zum Einsatz kam, lassen für die nahe Zukunft eine Serie von weiteren Polarisations-Experimenten erwarten. Hierbei könnte der REC-Strahlung und deren Polarisation als Mittel zur Diagnostik und zum Nachweis des Polarisationsgrades gespeicherter Ionenstrahlen eine Schlüsselrolle zukommen. Als Detektorsysteme werden hierzu zwei-dimensionale Germanium- und Silizium-Streifen-Detektoren zum Einsatz kommen bzw. Kombinationen aus zweidimensionalen Silizium- und Germanium-Detektoren, sogenannte Compton-Teleskope. Diese Compton-Polarimeter, die gegenwärtig für neue Experimentvorhaben am ESR-Speicherring entwickelt werden, verfügen über eine wesentlich verbesserte Ortsauflösung (z.B. 1x1 mm2) und somit über eine wesentlich gesteigerte Nachweiseffizienz für die Comptonstreuung (ein bis zwei Größenordnungen). Hierdurch sollte es möglich sein, den für Polarisationexerperimente zugänglichen Energiebereich wesentlich auszudehnen, sodass selbst die charakteristische Strahlung der Schwerionen (ca. 50 bis 100 keV) für solche Experimente zugänglich wird.
Physical soil properties feature high spatial variabilities which are known to affect geophysical measurements. However, these variations are not considered in most cases. The challenging task is to quantify the influence of soil heterogeneities on geophysical data. This question is analysed for DC resistivity and GPR measurements which are frequently used for near-surface explorations. To determine the pattern of electric soil properties in situ with the required high spatial resolution, geophysical measuring techniques are methodically enhanced. High-resolution dipole-dipole resistivity measurements are used to determine the electric conductivity distribution of the topsoil. Due to the small electrode separations, the actual electrode geometry has to be considered and an analytic expression for geometric factors is derived instead of assuming point electrodes. Two methods are used to determine soil permittivity with GPR:(i) the coefficient of reflection at the interface air-soil is measured with an air-launched horn antenna, (ii) the velocity of the groundwave is measured with a new setup using two receiver antennas enhancing the lateral resolution from in the best case 0.5 m for standard techniques to approximately 0.1 m with the new technique. With the optimised measuring techniques, the electric properties of sandy soils are determined in the field. Conductivity and permittivity show high spatial variability with correlation lengths of a few decimetres. Geostatistical simulation techniques are used to generate synthetic random media featuring the same statistical properties as in the field. FD calculations are carried out with this media to provide realistic synthetic data of resistivity and GPR measurements. Conductivity variations as determined in the field generate significant variations of simulated Schlumberger sounding curves resulting in uncertainties of the inverted models. Even in pedologically homogeneous sandy soil, moisture pattern and resulting permittivity variations cause strong GPR diffractions as demonstated by FD calculations. This influences the detectability of small objects such as e.g. landmines or of large reflectors as e.g. the groundwater table. Conductivity variations as typical for soils showed to have a minor effect on GPR measurements than variations of permittivity. In summary, geostatistical analysis and simulation provide a powerful tool to simulate geophysical measurements under field conditions including soil heterogeneity which can be used to quantify the uncertainty of field measurements by geologic noise.
The present publication is intended to be a monograph on the family of Burmanniaceae. It is divided into three parts: General Part, Critical Part and Taxonomical Part. The first part, General Part, contains general remarks on the taxonomy, distribution and use of the family. The second part, Critical Part, contains general and geobotanical remarks on the genera of the family, whereas the third part, the Taxonomical Part, gives the determination keys to the tribes, subtribes, genera, sections, subsections and species, the description of these groups with literature, distribution and the indications of the types. New varieties, species and larger groups are described in the taxonomical part in foot-notes.
Shaped by some of the most dramatic tectonic events of the Cenozoic, the parts of southern and eastern Asia that have become known as the Oriental faunal region comprise vast areas of great geological complexity and ecological diversity. One of the four major groups of terrestrial elapid snakes in this region is the genus Bungarus. These nocturnal and predominantly ophiophagous snakes are widely known as kraits and are an important cause of snakebite mortality throughout their wide range that extends from Afghanistan to Vietnam and eastern China, and south to the Indonesian islands of Java and Bali. Although present on Borneo, kraits have not been found on any island of the Philippines, nor on Lesser Sunda Islands east of Bali. Despite their medical significance and the great importance of Bungarus toxins as tools in neuropharmacology, krait systematics and taxonomy have remained largely unstudied. Twelve species of Bungarus were recognized at the beginning of the present study. Many of these are rare in collections, and most aspects of their biology are unknown. While some species are highly distinct, most kraits are conservative morphologically, rendering molecular methods invaluable for the study of their diversity and biogeography. This study is the first to address the relationships within Bungarus and the historical biogeography of kraits based on molecular evidence. I inferred phylogeographic relationships based on analyses of new nucleotide sequences of the entire mitochondrial cytochrome b gene of 51 kraits and partial NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 sequences of 40 kraits which I analyzed together with a representative sample of 32 published elapid and non-elapid outgroup taxa using Bayesian, maximum-likelihood, maximum-parsimony and neighbor-joining methods. I then used the recovered phylogeny to investigate the evolution of selected morphological characters and, together with collections-based geographical distribution information, in dispersal-vicariance analyses with models of variable taxonomic and biogeographic complexity. The phylogenetic analyses demonstrate that the current taxonomy of kraits does not adequately represent either the relationships or the genetic diversity in this genus. In contrast, I identified monophyletic groups that are congruent with recognized biogeographic units as well as extensive ecomorph evolution and morphologically cryptic speciation. The following additional conclusions are collectively supported by the mitochondrial phylogeny and morphological as well as biochemical synapomorphies: (1) Kraits are monophyletic with respect to the remaining taxa of the Elapidae; (2) Bungarus flaviceps and Bungarus bungaroides form the monophyletic sister clade of a clade formed by B. fasciatus, black-and-white-banded, and uniformly black taxa; (3) the remaining taxa are divisible into two sister clades, the South Asian species (Bungarus sindanus (Bungarus caeruleus, Bungarus ceylonicus)) vs. Himalayan, Burmese, Southeast and East Asian taxa; (4) within the latter, Burmese taxa form the sister clade to Southeast and East Asian taxa; (5) the widespread and medically significant species Bungarus candidus and Bungarus multicinctus are paraphyletic. The results of this study highlight the importance of vicariant geological events and sea level fluctuations for the cladogenesis of kraits. Events of particular importance in the evolution of kraits include the uplift of the Indo-Burman ranges (Arakan-Naga Hills) which separated black-and-white banded kraits in India and Southeast Asia, and the uplift of mountain ranges in Yunnan, China (e.g., the Gaoligong Shan), which coincided with lineage separation in two distantly related clades of kraits. Alternating dispersal and vicariance events due to Pleistocene climatic and sea level changes have caused complex phylogeographic patterns in kraits in Southeast Asia. Zones of contact between closely related evolutionary lineages of the B. candidus complex are identified in Thailand, Vietnam, and southern China (Hainan). Within this complex, two main clades are revealed. One includes populations from the Southeast Asian mainland and is in contact with B. multicinctus in southern China. The other consists of populations from Thailand, southern Vietnam, Java, and Bali. The phylogeny as well as genetic distances suggest a scenario in which a Pleistocene southward dispersal of B. candidus to Sumatra, Java, and Bali during times of low sea levels was temporarily interrupted by vicariant events (rising sea levels, especially flooding of the Malacca Strait between Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, and of the Bali Strait between Java and Bali). In this context, the close phylogenetic relationship between haplotypes from southern Vietnam and those from Java and Bali suggests that "southern" B. candidus dispersed directly via colonization of the widely receded South Chinese Sea, and not by taking a detour via the Malay Peninsula and Thailand, which were already inhabited by other populations of B. candidus. Using these phylogenetic estimates as the framework for a study on the diversity and evolution of krait venom components, I applied biochemical and molecular genetic approaches to identify and quantify polypeptide and protein toxins in krait venom, focusing on the distribution and molecular evolution of alpha-bungarotoxin, an irreversible competitive antagonist of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors with an exceptionally high applied significance as a receptor probe. I was specifically interested in the medically relevant question of intraspecific and interspecific variability in toxin diversity, and whether receptor-binding postsynaptic toxins evolve at rates different from those of presynaptic neurotoxins like beta-bungarotoxin, which act by destroying the nerve terminal and are believed to exhibit hypervariable functional diversification due to an accelerated mode of molecular evolution. In the context of this question, I isolated and purified the major lethal neurotoxins from B. candidus venoms by sequential steps of liquid chromatography for structural and functional characterization studies. Cloning and sequence analysis of toxin-coding genomic DNAs showed that the gene encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, originally isolated from B. multicinctus venom, is widely present and highly conserved in multiple populations of B. candidus and is expressed as the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin at least in Javan B. candidus. In addition to the widespread presence of genomic DNAs encoding the alpha-bungarotoxin alanine-31 variant, the present study also revealed the partial genes of three novel alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms in addition to the previously known alanine-31 and valine-31 variants, all of which share an invariant exon 3 coding region. While alpha-bungarotoxin is the principal postsynaptic neurotoxin of Taiwanese B. multicinctus and Javan B. candidus, the main postsynaptic neurotoxin of Thai B. candidus both by quantity and lethality was a novel polypeptide of similar toxicity with a mass of 8030 Da and 73 amino acid residues, whose characterization at the genetic and protein levels revealed a novel subgroup of krait neurotoxins, here named alpha-delta-bungarotoxins and represented by four sequences from Bungarus caeruleus and B. candidus. alpha-delta-Bungarotoxins share high sequence homology with alpha-bungarotoxins but the purified, 8030 Da alpha-delta-bungarotoxin-1 exhibits only reversible, low affinity binding to nicotinic receptors and high site-selectivity for the acetylcholine binding site at the alpha-delta-subunit interface of the receptor. These properties render alpha-delta-bungarotoxin not only the first snake long-chain neurotoxin with reversible binding and binding-site selectivity, but also an exciting natural tool with which to address structure-function relationships at the subunit interfaces of the human receptor. The results of comparisons of the number of non-synonymous nucleotide substitutions per nonsynonymous site (dN) to the number of synonymous nucleotide substitutions per synonymous site (dS) strongly suggest that positive selection is acting on exon 2 of the alpha-bungarotoxin and probably also of the alpha-delta-bungarotoxin genes. In addition, the numbers of nucleotide substitutions per site of intron (dI) compared to the dS value of the toxin-coding exon regions provide strong evidence for accelerated molecular evolution in exon 2 of alpha-delta-bungarotoxins —whose value of dI is only one-eighth of the value of dS—whereas the hypothesis of accelerated evolution is rejected for 13 unique genomic DNAs encoding five alpha-bungarotoxin isoforms from B. candidus and B. multicinctus....
This paper documents the methodology underlying the construction of a global database of gross foreign asset and liability positions for 153 countries over the period 1970 to 2004 and illustrates some key data characteristics. The data cover both inflows and outflows of capital and thus allow for an assessment of the degree of international financial integration. In addition to net foreign asset stocks, we also provide details on the composition of the main asset and liability categories, namely the foreign direct investment, equity investment and debt components. Finally, we report on valuation changes as one of the main sources of discrepancy between transaction-based capital flow data and stock values of investment positions. The dataset is available for download at www.ifk-cfs.de/fileadmin/downloads/data/cfs-icfd.zip. or http://publikationen.ub.uni-frankfurt.de/volltexte/2007/4855/original/cfs-icfd.zip JEL Classification: F21; F34; F32
In this paper we revisit medium- to long-run exchange rate determination, focusing on the role of international investment positions. To do so, we develop a new econometric framework accounting for conditional long-run homogeneity in heterogeneous dynamic panel data models. In particular, in our model the long-run relationship between effective exchange rates and domestic as well as weighted foreign prices is a homogeneous function of a country’s international investment position. We find rather strong support for purchasing power parity in environments of limited negative net foreign asset to GDP positions, but not outside such environments. We thus argue that the purchasing power parity hypothesis holds conditionally, but not unconditionally, and that international investment positions are an essential component to characterizing this conditionality. Finally, we adduce evidence that whether deterioration of a country’s net foreign asset to GDP position leads to a depreciation of that country’s effective exchange rate depends on its rate of inflation relative to the rate of inflation abroad as well as its exposure to global shocks. JEL Classification: F31, F37, C23
An evaluation scheme is presented in this paper which can be used to assess groundwater vulnerability according to the requirements of the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). The evaluation scheme results in a groundwater vulnerability map identifying areas of high, medium and low vulnerability, as necessary for the measurement planning of the WFD. The evaluation scheme is based on the definition of the vulnerability of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). It considers exposure, sensitivity and the adaptive capacity of the region. The adaptive capacity is evaluated in an actors' platform, which was constituted for the region in the PartizipA ("Participative modelling, Actor and Ecosystem Analysis in Regions with Intensive Agriculture") project. As a result of the vulnerability assessment, 21% of the catchment area was classified as being highly vulnerable, whereas 73% has medium vulnerability and 6% has low vulnerability. Thus, a groundwater vulnerability assessment approach is presented, which can be used in practice on a catchment scale for the WFD measurement planning.