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Die seit der jüngeren Bronzezeit verstärkt auftretenden Bogenschützen und Schleuderer bedurften eines spezifischen Trainings und einer Ausbildung, die weg vom Individualkämpfer zum Kämpfer im Verbund ausgerichtet war. Dieser Prozess wird als Professionalisierung in der Kriegsführung und als einschneidende Veränderung im Konfliktgeschehen in der Bronzezeit verstanden. Der Begriff der Professio nalisierung wird daher zunächst in seiner technischen Bedeutung verwendet. Mit der Entwicklung von einer individuellen zu einer organisierten und in der Gruppe ausgeübten Aktion sind eine Steigerung der Effizienz und eine Standardisierung verbunden, die zur Verbesserung der Qualität – eben dem bewaffneten Konflikt führt. Seit der jüngeren Mittelbronzezeit und in der Spätbronzezeit sind durch spektakuläre neue Befunde Befestigungen bekannt geworden, die Spuren von Angriffen und Zerstörungen durch Brand/ Feuer aufweisen. Dabei kamen Fernwaffen zum Einsatz, Pfeil und Bogen sowie Schleuderkugeln und Speere. Jedoch scheinen solche Konflikte keine alltäglichen Ereignisse gewesen zu sein, da von den meisten Befestigungen keine Hinweise auf Konflikte oder Gewaltereignisse vorliegen.
In der Schachthöhle mit dem Namen Mušja jama/Fliegenhöhle bei Škocjan im Hinterland der Triester Bucht an der nordöstlichen Adria sind mehrere Hunderte von Metallfunden zu Tage gekommen, überwiegend aus Bronze, einige wenige auch aus Eisen. Ihr Erhaltungsstand ist sehr unterschiedlich. Überwiegend handelt es sich um Reste von prachtvollen Waffen und Bronzegefäßen, während Elemente des Trachtzubehörs und andere Geräte unterrepräsentiert sind. Unter den Funden finden sich nur wenige Objekte lokaler Provenienz, es überwiegen erstaunlicherweise solche, deren Verbreitungsradius weit über die Region um das Caput Adriae hinausgeht, manche kommen sogar von sehr fern. Anhand der Verbreitungskarten von einigen kennzeichnenden Waffentypen erweist sich Škocjan als ein bemerkenswerter Schnittpunkt im „globalen“ Sinne der europäischen Urnenfelderkultur, aber auch noch in der frühen Eisenzeit. Vergleicht man z. B. insgesamt die Verbreitung von Glocken- und Kegelhelmen gegenüber der von Kammhelmen, zeigt sich eine Zweiteilung zwischen der östlichen und westlichen Ausrüstung der Elitekrieger in Europa, wobei die Trennlinie vom Caput Adriae, d. h. von Škocjan, entlang der Ostalpen und Elbe bis zur Ostsee verläuft. Man kann annehmen, dass es sich in der Mušja jama/Fliegenhöhle um die Weihungen mehrer Kriegsbeuten an Gottheiten martialischen Charakters handelte, wobei sich offenbar im Laufe der Zeit das Glücksrad zwischen den östlichen und westlichen Akteuren – Feldherren – gedreht hat.
Vorwort
(2019)
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die postulierte operationale Komplementarität von Selbstkonstruktion und Selbstorganisation. Den Ausgangspunkt der Überlegungen hierzu bilden die sich mehrenden Hinweise seitens der Neuro- und Kognitionswissenschaften, die auf die Wichtigkeit sozialer und kultureller Realitäten für die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Bewusstsein und speziell Selbstbewusstsein im Sinne von Metakognition deuten. Das zentrale Erkenntnisinteresse dieser Arbeit gilt dabei der Frage nach der Viabilität des Selbst. Theoriegrundlage ist damit das radikal-konstruktivistische Viabilitätskonzept, welches als instrumentale Perspektive die Gangbarkeit oder Funktionalität von Wirklichkeitskonstruktionen adressiert. Entscheidend ist damit nicht die Klärung des ontologischen Status des Selbst, nicht die Frage, was das Selbst ist, sondern wann oder wozu es ist. Selbstkonstruktion, so wird in dieser Arbeit grundlegend vorausgesetzt, vollzieht sich prinzipiell in Abhängigkeit der Konstruktion aller anderen Lebenszustände des Menschen. Verbunden damit ist die Grundannahme, dass Selbstkonstruktion aufgrund der operationalen Komplementarität zur Selbstorganisation nicht nur eine alleinige Angelegenheit des isolierten Individuums ist, sondern synchron in Mikro- und Makroebenen aller menschlichen Lebenszusammenhänge fließt. Entwicklungsgeschichtlich finden diese Zusammenhänge ihren Widerhall in Zwecksetzung und Antizipation und resultieren in der Erschließung neuer Existenzbereiche. „Selbstorganisation“ als kreative, selbstreferentielle Wahrnehmungstätigkeit äußert sich dabei in dem menschlichen Hinzufügen oder Verwerfen von Bedeutungszusammenhängen und der Konstruktion von Selektivität. Das „Verhältnis“ zwischen Selbstkonstruktion und Selbstorganisation definiert sich über koevolutionäre Entwicklungsprozesse und ist damit eine Dimension struktureller Kopplungen. Vor dem fachlichen Hintergrund der Kulturanthropologie versteht sich die vorliegende Arbeit als Beitrag zur holistischen Untersuchung von Veränderungsdynamiken menschlicher Selbstorganisation und den daran geknüpften Bedeutungskonstruktionen.
Geophysical prospection and excavations show that the heavily fortified Teleac hillfort was densely occupied with a population reaching the low thousands. In this article it is argued that Teleac was a local political centre that acted as a hub for transportation and trade in a region that is rich in mineral resources. Recent investigations also reveal that Teleac was attacked in the late 10th century in an event that breached and destroyed the formidable northern defensive system. This attack suggests that the level of military threat was quite severe in the eastern Carpathian Basin. The attacking forces must have had significant offensive capabilities in order to tackle Teleac’s defences. It is also a strong indication that not only Teleac, but contemporary fortified settlements in the surrounding region were at least in part erected to resist serious military threats.
This dissertation is an investigation of pitch accent, or lexical tone, in standard Croatian. The first chapter presents an in-depth overview of the history of the Croatian language, its relationship to Serbo-Croatian, its dialect groups and pronunciation variants, and general phonology. The second chapter explains the difference between various types of prosodic prominence and describes systems of pitch accent in various languages from different parts of the world: Yucatec Maya, Lithuanian and Limburgian. Following is a detailed account of the history of tone in Serbo-Croatian and Croatian, the specifics of its tonal system, intonational phonology and finally, a review of the most prominent phonetic investigations of tone in that language.
The focal point of this dissertation is a production experiment, in which ten native speakers of Croatian from the region of Slavonia were recorded. The material recorded included a diverse selection of monosyllabic, bisyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words, containing all four accents of standard Croatian: short falling, long falling, short rising and long rising. Each target word was spoken in initial, medial and final positions of natural Croatian sentences. This research fills several gaps in the existing literature. Namely, the production of tone was investigated in words with a syllabic /r̩/, in pretonal syllables and in non-initial context. Acoustic parameters measured included duration, F0 in every 10% of the nucleus duration, overall pitch, pitch range and pitch peak alignment.
Results showed that differences between falling and rising accents in Croatian are produced mainly with tonal parameters and that the most salient features were pitch peak alignment and overall pitch. The difference between long and short accents was primarily durational and optionally tonal. Words produced in initial and medial sentence positions had a rising contour in their accented syllable, while in the final, segments were usually falling.
The large hillfort of Teleac, commanding the Mureş River valley, the principal East-West connecting axis in the Carpathian Basin, was likely built in the second half of the 11th century BC and occupied until the end of the 10th or the early 9th century BC. The fortification wall was destroyed around 920 BC, according to recent investigations. More than 40 iron objects were discovered in the fortified complex. These iron finds viewed together with numerous other iron finds from other sites signify that Transylvania was an early centre of the implementation of iron and presumably iron production. Thereby, the use of iron for producing weapons probably stood in the foreground. This is indicated by corresponding grave finds in Greece that contain a sword as offering, but also iron swords found in Slovenia and Romania.
The large fortifi cation of Corneşti-larcuri is located on the Mureş River in Romania and comprises four rings of defensive ramparts. With the outermost rampart encircling a total area of 17.65 km2, Corneşti-larcuri is thus considered the largest Bronze Age fortification in Europe. New intensive research began in 2007 with the six-year project “Investigations on settlement structures and the chronology of the Late Bronze Age fortification of Corneşti-larcuri in Romanian Banat”, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). The project terminated in the autumn of 2017. Now the goal is to evaluate the data collected during the last eleven years and to develop the first syntheses. As part of the new excavations, a total of 109 radiocarbon datings from diff erent contexts (ramparts, ditches, pits, house structures, etc.) were obtained. The subsequent phase model based upon these data essentially refers to the dating of ramparts I and II and to pits associated with house contexts. Thus, it enables a site biography for Corneşti-larcuri to be outlined for the first time and four settlement phases to be distinguished.
Among many prehistoric hillforts of the Western Carpathians the one located at Maszkowice village displays unique traits. The site was excavated in 1960s and 1970s, but it was not until 2015 that the new field project revealed remains of massive stone fortifications. The wall of the Zyndram’s Hill is dated to the Early Bronze Age (18th century BC), being one of the earliest examples of defensive stone architecture in Europe outside Mediterranean. In our paper we shall discuss the development of the defensive system with its geographical and settlement context. Considering the results of fieldwork and other applied methods we can assume, that the enclosed settlement in Maszkowice functioned as an isolated point located in scarcely populated area. Therefore, we need to stress the landscape and geological circumstances which played a significant role in inner layout organization, social perception and the development of settlement and its fortifications. The stone wall was erected already at the beginning of the site’s occupation. The defensive system existed then in its most elaborated form (with at least two gates leading into the village), while later during several dozen years the fortifications slowly but constantly deteriorated. Finally, in conclusion we shall consider the stone wall of Zyndram’s Hill not as a product of local adaptation, but as a result of a prepared execution of a project.
The history of the Lombards could well be designated a history of warfare, for in the course of the 206-year existence of their realm in Italy the Lombards constantly carried out warfare of varying intensity, whether in their own defence or to expand their territory. Even the time prior to their invasion of Italy, especially their advances from Pannonia, were already marked by numerous military conflicts. Of particular interest here are the questions with reference to the background and the course of these conflicts, and also to the weaponry that was utilised. In the following contribution the weapons of Lombard warriors – or more specifically – the weapons used by warriors in Lombardian Italy will be examined. This specification is necessary because Lombard warriors experienced many interactions with other powers, for example, with Byzantine forces stationed in Italy (until 751 AD), and with foreign enemies like the Franks and Avars, who however could always turn into cooperative partners for the Lombards. Thus, it can be assumed that ultimately through contacts with enemies as well as with allies, the different types of Lombard weaponry depended upon the respective situation. Aside from use in real battles, weapons of the Lombards also had other functions: They were of symbolic significance in that they could demonstrate power and social differences. Certain types of weapons can be interpreted as signs of rank – which of course applies to the early Middle Ages on the whole. In principal, three groups of source material are at disposal for study: 1) references in written sources, 2) contemporary depictions of Lombard warriors, and 3) archaeological evidence, that is, weapons and pieces of armament found in graves, settlements and also occasional finds – including those without a find context. An overall picture of Lombard weaponry can only be gained when all possible source groups are evaluated.