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The Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) Experiment will investigate heavy ion collisions and reactions at interaction rates of 100 kHz in a targeted energy range of up to 11 AGeV for systems such as gold-gold or lead-lead. It will be one of the major scientific experiments of the Facility for Antiproton and Ion Research in Europe (FAIR) currently under construction at the site of the GSI Helmholtzzentrum für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt, Germany. CBM is going to be a fixed target experiment consisting of a superconducting magnet, multiple detectors of various types, and high-performance computing for online event reconstruction and selection. The detector closest to the interaction point of the experiment will be the Micro Vertex Detector (MVD). Consisting of four planar stations equipped with custom CMOS pixel sensors, it will allow to reconstruct the primary vertex with high precision and will help to reconstruct secondary vertices and identify particles originating from conversion in the detector material.
Due to the high interaction rates foreseen for CBM, understanding and minimizing systematic errors due to the detectors’ operating conditions will become all the more important to obtain significant measurement results, as statistical errors in the measurements of many observables are diminishing due to the enormous amount of data available.
Furthermore, the MVD will be the first detector based on CMOS pixel sensors used in a large physics experiment, that will be operated in vacuum. As a result, many aspects of the mechanical and electrical integration of the detector require careful testing and validation.
This thesis addresses both those challenges specifically for the Micro Vertex Detector with the development of a control system for the operation and validation of the MVD prototype “PRESTO” in vacuum. The prototype was selected as device under test as the final MVD is not yet built.
The developed control system helps a) to operate the prototype safely and keep it at the desired working point and b) to record important time-series data of the state of the detector prototype. Those two aspects allow the control system (which might later serve as a ‘blueprint’ for the final detector) to minimize the mentioned systematic errors as much as possible and to contribute to the understanding of remaining systematic errors using correlations with the time-series data. The controlled operation of the prototype in vacuum allowed to validate the integration concepts from a wide range of mechanical and electrical aspects in an endurance test for more than a year with 24/7 operation.
The prototype for this study itself was named “PRESTO” (standing for ‘PREcursor of the Second sTatiOn of the CBM-MVD’). It represents one quadrant of an MVD detector plane, equipped with a total of 15 MIMOSA-26 sensors on the front and back side of a carrier plate. Within this thesis, major parts of the prototype itself were designed. Custom ultra-thin flat flexible cables for data and power were designed and validated. Furthermore, the CNC-machined Aluminium heatsink to mount and cool the prototype design was refined to increase thermal performance. A custom vacuum feedthrough for a total of 21 flat ribbon cables was designed and fabricated. The read-out chain for MIMOSIS-26 was extended to cover a total of 8 sensors with a single and newer TRB-3 FPGA board and was set-up with the prototype. Vacuum equipment including chambers, hoses, pumps, valves and gauges were integrated to form a large vacuum testing system. A cooling circuit for the prototype was assembled comprising an external chiller, hoses, vacuum feedthroughs, as well as temperature, flow and pressure sensors.
The control system was developed to serve the needs of the prototype, while taking the requirements of the final MVD already into account. The main design goals of the control system are:
• compatibility with the other detectors and the overall CBM experiment,
• access to real-time measurements of all necessary parameters (‘process values’),
• reliable, fail-safe operation of the detector,
• recording of all time-series data (‘archiving’),
• cost efficiency and acceptance within the physics community,
• good usability for the users (‘operators’),
• long-term maintainability.
The recorded time-series data of the process variables (i.e. sensor readings) allow a post-measurement analysis of variations in the detector performance. The longterm archiving of all relevant system parameters is therefore of outstanding importance, which is why the software intended for this purpose – called “archiver” – was given special attention in this thesis.
For this reason in particular, it is necessary to implement a comprehensive control system that allows the detector to be operated safely under these conditions and cooled effectively. Before the start of this doctoral thesis, vigilant and extensively trained operators were always necessary for this. The control system that has been developed makes it possible that, after basic training, the detector can also be operated by a less specialised shift supervisor during measurement campaigns.
...
The Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) is one of the core experiments at the future Facility for Anti-proton and Ion Research (FAIR), Darmstadt, Germany. Its goal is to investigate nuclear matter characteristics at high net-baryon densities and moderate temperatures. The Silicon Tracking System (STS) is a central detector system of CBM.
It is placed inside a 1Tm magnet and operated at a temperature of about −10 °C to keep radiation-induced bulk current in the 300μm double-sided microstrip silicon sensors low. The design of the STS aims to minimize the material budget in the detector acceptance (2.5° < θ < 25°). In order to do so, the readout electronics is placed outside the active area, and the analog signals are transported via ultra-thin micro-cables. The STS comprises eight tracking stations with 876 modules. Each module is assembled on a carbon fiber ladder, which is subsequently mounted in the C-shaped aluminum frame.
The scope of the thesis focused on developing a modular control system framework that can be implemented for different sizes of experimental setups. The developed framework was used for setups that required a remote operation, like the irradiation of the powering modules for the front-end electronics (FEE), but also in laboratory-based setups where the automation and archiving were needed (thermal cycling of the STS electronics).
The low voltage powering modules will be placed in the vicinity of the experiment, therefore they will experience a total dose of up to 40mGy over the 10 years of STS lifetime.
To estimate the effects of the radiation on the low-voltage module performance, a dedicated irradiation campaign took place. It aimed at estimating the rate of radiation induced soft errors, that lead to the switch off of the FEE.
Regular power cycles of multiple front-end boards (FEBs) pose a risk to the experiment operation. Firstly, such behavior could negatively influence the physics performance but also have deteriorating effects on the hardware. It was further assessed what are the limitations of the FEBs with respect to the thermal cycling and the mechanical stress. The results served as an indication of possible failure modes of the FEB at the end of STS lifetime. Failure modes after repeated cycles and potential reasons were determined (e.g., Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (CTE) difference between the materials).
Due to the conditions inside the STS efficient temperature and humidity monitoring and control are required to avoid icing or water condensation on the electronics or silicon sensors. The most important properties of a suitable sensor candidate are resilience to the magnetic field, ionizing radiation tolerance, and fairly small size.
A general strategy for ambient parameters monitoring inside the STS was developed, and potential sensor candidates were chosen. To characterize the chosen relative humidity sensors the developed control framework was introduced. A sampling system with a ceramic sensor and Fiber Optic Sensors (FOS) were identified as reliable solutions for the distributed sensing system. Additionally, the industrial capacitive sensors will be used as a reference during the commissioning.
Two different designs of FOS were tested: a hygrometer and 5 sensors multiplexed in an array. The FOS hygrometer turned out to be a more reliable solution. One of the possible reasons for a worse performance is a relatively low distance between the subsequent sensors (15 cm) and a thicker coating. The results obtained from the time response study pointed out that the thinner coating of about 15μm should be a good compromise between the humidity sensitivity and the time response.
The implementation of the containerized-based control system framework for the mSTS is described in detail. The deployed EPICS-based framework proved to be a reliable solution and ensured the safety of the detector for almost 1.5 years. Moreover, the data related to the performance of the detector modules were analyzed and significant progress in the quality of modules was noted. Obtained data was also used to estimate the total fluence, which was based on the leakage current changes.
The developed framework provided a unique opportunity to automate and control different experimental setups which provided crucial data for the STS. Furthermore, the work underlines the importance of such a system and outlines the next steps toward the realization of a reliable Detector Control System for STS.
The upcoming CBM Experiment at FAIR aims at exploring the region of highest net baryonic densities reproducible in energetic heavy ion collisions. Due to the very high beam intensities expected at FAIR, unprecedented data regarding rare observables such as charm quarks and hyperons will be accessible. Open charm mesons are particularly interesting, since they support the reconstruction of the total charm cross-section in order to search for exotic phenomena, e.g. a phase transition towards the quark-gluon plasma which is predicted by several theoretical models. Open charm studies will be performed via secondary vertex reconstruction with a suitable Micro-Vertex Detector (MVD). The CBM-MVD is currently in the development and prototyping phase with primary design goals concentrating on spatial resolution, radiation hardness, material budget, and readout performance. CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS) provide an excellent spatial resolution for the MVD in the order of few um in combination with a low material budget (50 um thickness) and high radiation hardness. The active volume of the devices is formed from the epitaxial layer of standard CMOS wafers. This allows for integration of pixels together with analogue and digital data processing circuits on one single chip. This option was explored with the MIMOSA-26 prototype, which integrates functionalities like pedestal correction, correlated double sampling, discrimination and data sparsification based on zero suppression combined with a small and dense pixel matrix. The pixel array composed of 576 lines of 1152 pixels is read out in a column-parallel rolling shutter mode. One discriminator per column and the digital data processing circuits are located on the same chip in a 3 mm wide area beneath the pixel matrix allowing for binary hit encoding. This area also contains the circuits for pedestal correction and the configuration memory, which is programmed via JTAG. The preprocessed digital data is read out via two 80 Mbit/s LVDS links per sensor, which stream their data continuously based on a low-level protocol.
Within the scope of this thesis, a readout concept of the CBM-MVD is proposed and studied based on the current MIMOSA sensor generation. The backbone of the system is formed by the Readout Controller boards (ROCs) featuring FPGA microchips and optical links. Several ROC prototypes are considered using the synergy with the HADES Experiment. Finally, the TRB3 board is selected as a possible candidate for the initial FAIR experiments. Furthermore, a highly scalable, hardware independent FPGA firmware is implemented in order to steer and read out multiple MIMOSA-26 sensors. The reconfigurable firmware is also designed with the support for future MIMOSA sensor generations. The free-streaming sensor data is deserialized and error-checked, prior to its transmission over a suitable network interface. In order to demonstrate the validity of the concept, a readout network similar to the HADES Data Acquisition (DAQ) system is developed. The ROC is tested on the HADES TRB2 boards and data is acquired using suitable MAPS add-on boards and the TrbNet protocol.
In the context of the CBM-MVD prototype project, a readout network with 12 MIMOSA-26 sensors has been prepared for an in-beam test at the CERN SPS facility. A comprehensive control system is designed comprising customized software tools. The subsequent in-beam test is used to validate the design choices. As a result, the system could be operated synchronously and dead-time free for several days. The readout network behavior in a realistic operating environment has been carefully studied with the outcome the the TrbNet based approach handles the MVD prototype setup without any difficulties. A procedure to keep the sensors synchronous even in case of a data overflow has been pioneered as well. After the beam test, improvements and conceptual changes to the readout systems are being addressed which allow an integration into the global CBM DAQ system.
Development of the timing system for the Bunch-to-Bucket transfer between the FAIR accelerators
(2017)
The FAIR project is aiming at providing high-energy beams of ions of all elements from hydrogen to uranium, antiprotons and rare isotopes with high intensities. The existing accelerator facility of GSI and the future FAIR facility employ a variety of circular accelerators like heavy ion synchrotrons (SIS18 and SIS100) and storage rings (ESR, CRYRING, CR and HESR) for the preparation of secondary beams and experiments. Bunches are required to be transferred into rf buckets among GSI and FAIR ring accelerators for different purposes. Without the proper transfer, the beam will be subject to various beam quality deterioration and even to beam losses. Hence, the proper bunch-to-bucket (B2B) transfer between two rings is of great importance for FAIR and is the topic, which has been investigated in this thesis.
These circular accelerators of GSI and FAIR have different ratios in their circumference. For example, the circumference ratio between SIS100 and SIS18 is an integer and between SIS18 and ESR is close to an integer and between CR and HESR is far away from an integer. The ring accelerators are connected via a complicated system of beam transfer lines, targets for the secondary particle production and the high energy separators mentioned above. For FAIR, not only the primary beams are required to be transferred from one ring to another, but also the secondary beams, e.g. the antiproton or rare isotope beams produced by the antiproton (pbar) target, the fragment separator (FRS) or the superconducting fragment separator (Super-FRS). An important topic for this system of accelerators is the proper transfer of beam between the different circular accelerators. Bunches of one ring must be transferred into buckets of another ring within an upper bound time constraint (e.g. 10 ms for most FAIR use cases) and with an acceptable B2B injection center mismatch +-1 degree for most FAIR use cases). Hence, a flexible FAIR B2B transfer system is required to realize the different complex B2B transfers between the FAIR rings in the future. In the focus of the system development and of this thesis is the transfer from SIS18 to SIS100, which can be tested at GSI on the transfer from SIS18 to ESR and from ESR to CRYRING. The system is based on the existing technical basis at GSI, the low-level radio frequency (LLRF) system and the FAIR control system. It coordinates with the Machine Protection System (MPS), which protects SIS100 and subsequent accelerators and experiments from damage caused by high intensity primary beams in case of malfunctioning. Besides, it indicates the beam status and the actual beam injection time for the beam instrumentation and diagnostics.
The conceptual realization of the FAIR B2B transfer system was introduced in this thesis for the first time. It achieves the most FAIR B2B transfers with a tolerable B2B injection center mismatch (e.g. +-1 degree) and within an upper bound time (e.g. 10 ms). It supports two synchronization methods, the phase shift and frequency beating methods. It is flexible to support the beam transfer between two rings with different ratios in their circumference and several B2B transfers running at the same time, e.g. the B2B transfer from SIS18 to SIS100 and at the same time the B2B transfer from ESR to CRYRING. It is capable to transfer beam of different ion species from one machine cycle to another and to transfer beams between two rings via the FRS, the pbar target and the Super-FRS. It allows various complex bucket filling pattern. In addition, it coordinates with the MPS system, which protects the SIS100 and subsequent accelerators or experiments from beam induced damage.
A list of criteria for the preservation of beam qualities during the rf frequency modulation of the phase shift method was analyzed. As an example the beam reaction on three different rf frequency modulation examples were analyzed for SIS18 beams. According to the beam dynamic analysis, there is a maximum value for the rf frequency modulation. The first derivative of the rf frequency modulation must be continuous and small enough and the second derivative must be small enough.
In addition to the analysis from the viewpoint of beam dynamics, two test setups were built. The first test setup was used to characterize the FAIR timing network – white rabbit network for the B2B transfer. In the second test setup, the firmware of the FAIR B2B transfer system was evaluated, which was running on the soft CPU, LatticeMico32, of the Scalable Control Unit - the FAIR standard Front End Controller. Besides, the boundary conditions of the different trigger scenarios of the SIS18 extraction and SIS100 injection kicker magnets were investigated. Finally, the application of the FAIR B2B transfer system for all FAIR use cases was demonstrated.
The dissertation plays a significant important role for the realization of the FAIR B2B transfer system and the further practical application of the system to all FAIR use cases.
The study of the electromagnetic structure of hadrons plays an important role in understanding the nature of matter. In particular the emission of lepton pairs out of the hot and dense collision zone in heavy-ion reactions is a promising probe to investigate in-medium properties of hadrons and in general the properties of matter under such extreme conditions. The first experimental observation of an enhanced di-electron yield in the invariant-mass region 0:3 - 0:7 GeV/c2 in p+Be collisions at 4:9 GeV/u beam energy [2] was announced by the DLS collaboration [1]. Recent results of the HADES collaboration show a moderate enhancement above n Dalitz decay contributions for 12C+12C at 1 and 2 GeV/u [3, 4] confirming the DLS results. There are several theoretical explanations of this observation, most of them focusing on possible in-medium modifications of the properties of vector mesons. At low beam energies the question whether the observed excess is related to any in-medium effects remains open because of uncertainties in the description of elementary di-electron sources. In this work the di-electron production in p+p and d+p reactions at a kinetic beam energy of 1:25 GeV/u measured by the HADES spectrometer is discussed. At Ekin = 1:25 GeV/u, i.e. below the n meson production threshold in proton-proton reactions, the delta Dalitz decay is expected to be the most abundant source above the pi 0 Dalitz decay region. The observed large difference in di-electron production in p+p and d+p collisions suggests that di-electron production in the d+p system is dominated by the n+p interaction. In order to separate delta Dalitz decays and np bremsstrahlung the di-electron yield observed in p+p and n+p reactions, both measured at the same beam energy, has been compared. The main interest here is the investigation of iso-spin effects in baryonic resonance excitations and the off-shell production of vector mesons [5]. We indeed observe a large difference in di-electron production in p+p and n+p reactions. Results of these studies will be compared to recent calculations. We will also present our experimentally defined cocktail for heavy-ion data. At much higher beam energies experimental results of the CERES [6] and NA60 [7] collaborations also show an enhancement in the invariant mass region 0:3 - 0:7 GeV/c2, in principle similar to the situation in DLS. A strong excess of lepton pairs observed by recent high energy heavy-ion dilepton experiments hint to a strong influence of baryons, however no data exist at highly compressed baryonic matter, achievable in heavy-ion collisions from 8 - 45 GeV/u beam energy. These conditions would allow to study the expected restoration of chiral symmetry by measuring in-medium modifications of hadronic properties, an experimental program which is foreseen by the future CBM experiment at FAIR. The experimental challenge is to suppress the large physical background on the one hand and to provide a clean identification of electrons on the other hand. In this work, strategies to reduce the combinatorial background in electron pair measurements with the CBM detector are discussed. The main goal is to study the feasibility of effectively reducing combinatorial background with the currently foreseen experimental setup, which does not provide electron identification in front of the magnetic field.
Der langsame Neutroneneinfang-Prozess (s-Prozess) ist für die Erzeugung von rund der Hälfte der Elemente zwischen Eisen und Blei verantwortlich. Sein Reaktionspfad enthält entlang des Stabilitätstals einige Verzweigungspunkte an instabilen Isotopen, deren Neutroneneinfangquerschnitte die Produktion schwererer Elemente und deren Isotopen-Verhältnisse beeinflussen. Kennt man ihre Zerfalls- und Neutroneneinfangraten unter den angenommenen stellaren Bedingungen ist es möglich, Rückschlüsse auf die physikalischen Umstände während des s-Prozesses zu ziehen. Einer dieser Verzweigungspunkte ist 63-Ni. Die experimentelle Bestimmung des differentiellen Wirkungsquerschnittes für den Neutroneneinfang an diesem Isotop ist das primäre Ergebnis der vorliegenden Arbeit. Der 63-Ni(n,gamma)- Wirkungsquerschnitt hat Einfluss auf die Häufigkeiten von 64-Ni, die Kupfer- und die Zink-Isotope. Die Sensitivität der Produktion dieser Nuklide in s-Prozess-Szenarien wurde ebenfalls im Rahmen dieser Arbeit anhand von Simulationen des entsprechenden Nukleosynthesenetzwerkes untersucht. Zudem wurde die Datenlage für s-Prozess-Modelle mit einer Flugzeit-Messung des 63-Cu(n,gamma)-Wirkungsquerschnitts erweitert.
Die beiden Experimente zur Querschnittsbestimmung von 63-Ni und 63-Cu fanden am Los Alamos Neutron Science Center in New Mexico, USA statt. Eine aus angereichertem 62-Ni hergestellte 63-Ni-Probe wurde im Rahmen einer Flugzeit-Messung gepulst mit Neutronen bestrahlt. Der Nachweis der prompten Gammastrahlung aufgrund von Neutroneneinfängen erfolgte mit dem 4π-BaF_2-Detektor DANCE. Die kalorimetrische Messung macht den Q-Wert der Reaktion für jedes Einfangereignis zugänglich und erlaubt die Unterscheidung von Ereignissen verschiedener Isotope. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese Methode die Bestimmung von Querschnitten selbst mit Proben ermöglicht, die nur zu einem Bruchteil aus dem zu untersuchenden Isotop bestehen. Der 63-Ni(n,gamma)-Wirkungsquerschnitt wurde für den Energiebereich von 40 eV bis 500 keV mit einer maximalen Unsicherheit von 15% bestimmt. Es zeigte sich, dass theoretische Abschätzungen den Querschnitt bislang um etwa einen Faktor 2 unterschätzten. In demselben Energiebereich konnte der 63-Cu(n,gamma)-Wirkungsquerschnitt mit einer maximalen Unsicherheit von 8% vermessen werden.
Das Strahldynamikdesign für den MYRRHA-Injektor wurde im Hinblick auf eine hohe Zuverlässigkeit und Verfügbarkeit, sowie eine verbesserte Strahlausgangsemittanz, neu entwickelt und erfüllt nun die Anforderungen des Kernreaktors.
In der statistischen Fehleranalyse zeigt sich die Strahldynamik der CH-Sektion als äußerst robust und liefert selbst unter pessimistischen Fehlerannahmen eine Transmission von über 99,9 %.
Das neue Injektorkonzept bietet wesentliche Vorteile gegenüber dem in „MAX Referenzdesign 2012“ vorgestellten Injektordesign und wird als neues „MAX Referenzdesign 2014“ für den MYRRHA-Injektor verwendet. Die guten strahldynamischen Eigenschaften des neuen Injektordesigns konnten in Vergleichsrechnungen mit TraceWin am IN2P3@CNRS1 (Institut National de Physique Nucléaire et de Physique des Particules @ Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique, Orsay, Frankreich) bestätigt werden.
Neben der Strahldynamik wurde das HF-Design für die benötigten Beschleunigerkavitäten entwickelt und ebenfalls für eine hohe Zuverlässigkeit und Verfügbarkeit optimiert. Das HF-Design der CH-Strukturen ist für eine größtmögliche Ausfallsicherheit auf den Betrieb mit niedrigen elektrischen Feldgradienten, weit unterhalb der technischen Leistungsgrenzen und Möglichkeiten der jeweiligen Kavität, ausgelegt.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde die katalytische Wirkung von massenselektierten Edelmetallclustern in photographischen Entwicklern an möglichst praxisnahen photographischen Modellsystemen untersucht, um die bei der Belichtung und der anschließenden Entwicklung von photographischen Filmmaterialien ablaufenden Prozesse besser verstehen zu können. Hierzu wurden präformierte und anschließend massenspektrometrisch größenselektierte Edelmetallclusterionen sanft auf photographische Emulsionskörner aufgebracht und anschließend untersucht, wie die deponierten Clusterionen die chemische Reduktion dieser gelatinefreien Silberhalogenid-Mikrokristalle im Entwickler beeinflussen. Apparatives Kernstück ist eine in den letzten drei Jahren in der Arbeitsgruppe von Prof. L. Wöste an der Freien Universität in Berlin entwickelte Anlage mit der es möglich ist, Edelmetallcluster definierter Größe in so ausreichender Menge durch Sputtern zu erzeugen, daß auch nach kurzen Depositionszeiten genügend viele Cluster auf Oberflächen deponiert werden können. Hohe Teilchenströme von Silbercluster-Kationen wurden über einen weiten Größenbereich (Ag1 + -Ag34+) erzeugt. Der Silbercluster mit der geringsten Intensität im Spektrum, das besonders interessante Ag4 +, wurde mit einem Clusterstrom von 800 pA bei guter Massenauflösung erzeugt. Für Silbercluster-Anionen erzielt man annähernd die gleichen Teichenströme wie für die entsprechenden -Kationen. Durch Sputtern von Gold-Silber-Mischtargets ließen sich AunAgm+-Clusterionen bis zu einer Masse von 2200 amu erzeugen. Um die Forderung nach einem langsamen Aufbringen der Cluster auf die Oberfläche („soft landing“) zu erfüllen, wurden die Cluster mit Hilfe von zwei mit Stoßgas gefüllten Quadrupolen abgebremst. Durch die so verwirklichte sanfte Deposition der Cluster ist es erstmals gelungen, die photographische Wirkung der auf primitive Emulsionskörner deponierten Cluster in definierter, reproduzierbarer und daher aussagekräftiger Weise zu untersuchen. Das war möglich, weil die Depositionsenergien der Cluster (< 1 eV) unterhalb der Bindungsenergien der hier deponierten Edelmetallcluster liegen und somit eine Verfälschung der Resultate durch Fragmentation der Clusterionen ausgeschlossen werden konnte. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, daß erst ab Depositionsenergien von ³ 5 eV eine vermehrte Fragmentation der Cluster zu erwarten ist. Ob ein Silbercluster an einem Emulsionskorn dessen bevorzugte Entwickelbarkeit einleitet, hängt nicht nur von der Größe des Aggregates und seiner Ladung ab, sondern auch vom Redoxpotential des photographischen Entwicklers. Positiv geladene Silbercluster aus mindestens vier Atomen (Agn+, n³4) katalysieren den Entwicklungsprozeß der Emulsionskörner bei Redoxpotentialen, die negativer als -310 mV (Ag/AgCl-Referenzelektrode) sind. Aber auch Ag3+-Cluster führen noch zu einer Entwickelbarkeit, wenn das Redoxpotential unterhalb -350 mV liegt. Im Gegensatz zu Ag3+-Clustern können Ag3--Cluster, ebenso wie Ag4+-Cluster, die Entwicklung bereits bei einem Redoxpotential von -310 mV katalysieren. Kleinere Silberaggregate, ob positiv oder negativ geladen, führen nicht zu einer bevorzugten Entwickelbarkeit der mit ihnen belegten Silberhalogenidkörner. Ein Einfluß der Kornmorphologie (Kuben, Oktaeder, T-grains) auf die kritische Clustergröße konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden. Erstmals war es auch möglich, Gold-Silber-Mischclusterionen auf ihre photographische Wirkung hin zu untersuchen. Dabei zeigte sich, daß die katalytische Wirkung von Gold-Silber-Mischclusterionen auf die Entwickelbarkeit der sie enthaltenden Emulsionskörner allein durch den Silberanteil der Cluster bestimmt wird. Mischcluster Ag1Aum+ (m³2) und Ag2Aum+ (m³1) katalysieren die Entwicklung nicht, unabhängig vom Redoxpotential. Dagegen leiten Ag3Aum + (m³2), entsprechend den Agn+-Clustern (n³4) bei Redoxpotentialen negativer als -310 mV die Entwicklung ein. Mischcluster mit höherem Silberanteil (AgnAum+; n³4, m³1) ändern ihre katalytische Wirkung gegenüber reinen Silberclustern entsprechender Größe nicht. Erstmals konnte auch der Begriff „Goldlatensifikation“ präzisiert werden. Die hier gefundnen Ergebnisse zeigen eindeutig, daß von einer solchen nur dann gesprochen werden kann, wenn sich die Goldatome an das Trimer anlagern. Dagegen kann die alleinige Substitution von Silber durch Gold sowohl als empfindlichkeitssteigernder Mechanismus bei der Goldlatensifikation als auch bei der Goldreifung ausgeschlossen werden. Reine Goldcluster-Kationen bis zum Au7 + zeigen keine katalytische Wirkung.
Gegenstand dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der optischen und elektronischen Eigenschaften von metallorganischen Materialien, die mit dem Verfahren der Elektronenstrahlinduzierten Deposition hergestellt wurden. Da es sich bei diesen noch relativ unerforschten Endprodukten um Materialmengen von wenigen Nanogramm Gewicht und geometrische Abmessungen im Sub-µm-Bereich handelt, wurden hierzu neue Verfahren der Herstellung, Strukturierung und Charakterisierung entwickelt. Sowohl die optischen als auch die elektronischen Eigenschaften dieser Deponate besitzen einen gemeinsamen physikalischen Nenner in ihrer inneren Morphologie: ein nanokristallines dielektrisches Verbundmaterial, das aus metallischen Kristalliten und organischen Polymeren gebildet wird. Im Hinblick auf die Durchführung der Untersuchungen war das Augenmerk auf zwei potentielle industrielle Anwendungen gerichtet: den Photonischen Kristallen und den Einzelelektronen-Phänomenen bei Raumtemperatur. Mit Hilfe von Beugungsexperimenten im Fernfeld wird ein Verfahren gezeigt, das eine der periodischen Struktur von Photonischen Kristallen angepaßte Charakterisierung von Materialstrukturen mit optischer Bandlücke ermöglicht. Das mathematische Grundgerüst bildet dabei eine rigorose Streutheorie, die als Lösung der Helmholtz-Gleichung an dielektrischen Zylindern mit wenigen hundert nm Durchmesser den Experimenten zugrunde gelegt wird und sowohl für die praktische Dimensionierung des Versuchsaufbaus als auch für die theoretische Auswertung der Meßdaten, z.B. für die Brechungsindexbestimmung, dient. Die Herstellung und Kontrolle der Eigenschaften von Einzelelektronen-Tunnelelementen (SETs, Single Electron Tunneling Devices), welche bei hohen Temperaturen mit einer abzählbar kleinen Anzahl von Elektronen noch arbeiten, dürfte wohl eine der größten Herausforderungen in der heutigen Festkörperelektronik sein. Obwohl die Idee dazu, auf Basis der "Orthodoxen Theorie", bis auf die 80er Jahre des vergangenen Jahrhunderts zurückgeht, konnten nennenswerte Ergebnisse nur unter "Laborbedingungen" mit entsprechend hohem experimentellem Aufwand erzielt werden. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein neuer Weg gegangen, um die beiden wesentlichen Bedingungen der orthodoxen Theorie, nämlich die Kleinheit der Kapazitäten und hohe Tunnelwiderstände, durch das ungeordnete nanokristalline Netzwerk der metallorganischen Deponate zu erfüllen. Die Motivation hierzu liegt in der hochohmigen organischen Matrix der Deponate, die mit darin eingebetteten elektrisch isolierten Nanokristalliten (die mit Durchmessern zwischen 1 nm und 2.5 nm ausgezeichnete Quantenpunkte bilden) eine ideale Umgebung für den Betrieb von Einzelelektronen-Tunnelelementen bereitstellen. Ein stabiles Verhalten unter hohen Temperaturen und eine ausgeprägte Resistenz gegen quantenmechanische Fluktuationen (z. B. dem Co-Tunneln oder Hintergrundladungen) wird durch den Aufbau von nanokristallinen Netzwerken, die in der Arbeit als "Über-SET" bezeichnet werden, erreicht. Mit Hilfe der entwickelten speziellen Technik lassen sich Nanokristallite elektrisch bis zur quantenmechanischen Tunnelgrenze voneinander isolieren und als Quantenpunkte betreiben. Die dabei beobachtbaren Phänomene sind diskretisierte I/U-Kennlinien und das Blockade-Verhalten der Spannung bei Raumtemperatur, deren Entstehung in Monte-Carlo-Simulationen auf zwei physikalische Grundprinzipien zurückgeführt wird: der Ausbildung von Einfangzuständen (Traps) für Elektronen an Grenzstellen und dem Mechanismus des negativen differentiellen Widerstandes (NDR, Negative Differential Resistance). Beide Effekte fungieren in einer gegenseitigen Kombination zueinander durch Coulomb-Wechselwirkungen zu einem mikroskopischen Schalter für den gesamten Strom.