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This study examines the developmental stages of spelling ability focusing on the learning process of the Japanese orthographic system for native speakers of Japanese. After first providing a basic explanation of the Japanese orthographic system, issues regarding the acquisition of Japanese spelling are discussed. Next, in order to clarify the acquisition of writing skills in the introductory stage of Japanese spelling, data from prior case studies and this investigation are examined. From these results, a new proposal for developmental stages of orthographic concepts is suggested. This study also examines strategies of invented spelling and the relationship between developmental stages and learning ages. Children had learned a considerable amount of hiragana spelling before entering first grade, and by the end of first grade (late March) had reached the point where they were mostly able to write phrases in both hiragana and katakana. The developmental stages were as follows:
Stage1: Hiragana spelling not yet acquired
Stage2: Hiragana spelling acquisition (unvoiced, voiced, semi-voiced)
Stage3: Hiragana spelling acquisition (special syllable markers)
Stage4: Katakana spelling acquisition (unvoiced, voiced, semi-voiced)
Stage5: Katakana spelling acquisition (special syllable markers)
Stage6: Combined usage of hiragana and katakana acquisition
Stage7: Kanji spelling not yet acquired (includes kanji learning stages).
Researchers working on acquisition of written language by children are traditionally more interested in reading than in writing even if, today, spelling and writing have become common subjects of research and the themes of academic conferences. A country as large as Japan, as Tsukada says (in this issue), is just beginning to consider writing as an object of investigation, even though reading is a classic concern in his country. One of the most heuristic research methodologies in spelling is "invented spelling". It is a very simple situation in which a child – most often 4 or 5 years old – is asked to spell words or sentences that s/he has never been taught. These written productions are very meaningful in the eyes of a researcher.
Literary response and attitude toward reading fiction in secondary education: Trends and predictors
(2006)
The present article synthesizes the results of four studies that concern attitudes towards reading fiction and the literary response of students in secondary education. Both cross sectional and longitudinal data sets were created with the cross sectional data used for establishing 'model fit' of both the attitude model and the literary response model. Relations between different components of both models used are charted among reading behavior and relations between model components and student characteristics. The longitudinal data is used to establish trends in attitude and response. Also relations between student characteristics and characteristics of literary education lessons on the one hand and trends in attitude and literary response scores on the other are examined. Results indicate that both the attitude and the response instrument show adequate model fit. Of all attitude components, 'affect' appears to be the best predictor of reading behavior. Response factors appear to be structured in two secondary order factors: 'trance' and 'literary interpretation'. Attitude and response scores diminish with age. Literary education lessons appear to slow down the diminishing trends. The text experience method seems especially promising for stimulating literary response and attitude toward reading fiction.
In mainstream theory about written language skills there is a strong relation between the notion of 'lexicon' and 'phonology'. The work of both researchers and teachers is rooted in this theoretical relation between lexicon and spoken language, which originates from the linguistic tradition of the past century. The problem with this position is that it has never been treated as a real hypothesis, and we should therefore not base our professional work on it without moderation. In the present article my aim is to show how different combinations of psychological and linguistic theories have different options and limitations concerning the relation between lexicon and phonology. In doing so, I claim that the mainstream theory of written language skills—particularly its relation between lexicon and phonology—is not the most plausible and defensible solution. In the present article I claim that it is possible to investigate the relation of speech and writing on a stronger empirical basis, and that this can be done by first giving equal validity to spoken and written language, and second by giving preference to theory with a minimum of introspection. The paper addresses researchers working with written language skills, and teachers who want to reflect on basic assumptions related to their profession. First, some assumptions concerning the mental lexicon in mainstream theory of written language skills are questioned. These assumptions are here linked to cognitivism and linguistic formalism. Second, alternative assumptions are derived from a pairing of functional approaches to language and connectionism. These alternative assumptions may be seen as contributions to a revitalized understanding of the connection between phonology and lexicon when studying written language skills.
Written language skills are dynamic, they develop differently in individuals and are acquired in multiple ways and contexts. Paradoxically, mainstream research on and teaching of these skills is based on a linguistic philosophy that has always valued highly systematic—and static—descriptions. The problem of static perspectives is that they describe only a proficiency related to structures at a given point in time, without any flexible model of reading and writing behaviour. In the present article I claim the socalled 'alphabetical principle' to be an unfortunate product of static perspectives, and which has a very limited relevance when we want to seize the dynamics of written language acquisition. A consequence of my position is that it does not make sense to polemicize whether one should teach 'phonics' or 'whole language'. Before we search for a narrow perspective – a teaching method – we must assure that the basic assumptions we choose to lean on are the best possible. After doing so, we may end up with a narrow perspective that may involve some aspects of what we today know as both 'phonics' or 'whole language'. But the most important goal is that such perspective should make teachers and researchers capable of seizing the dynamics of written language acquisition. In the present article, an alternative approach is suggested in order to maintain dynamic perspectives on written-language acquisition. This approach degrades the role of traditional linguistic description, such as the 'phoneme', focusing instead on a psychological model of 'skill' in which linguistic structures in spoken language play a role as possible cues in the acquisition of written language. It is claimed that this model also carries greater potential for explanation than do static approaches.
Observational learning has proved to be effective with learners of various ages and in various school subjects, including writing. However, little is known about the actual behavior of learners while carrying out observation tasks. In this case study, students' learning activities when processing observation tasks are closely analyzed: six students thought aloud while observing sets of writers as peer models, and were interviewed afterwards. Results suggest that observers carried out many (meta)cognitive activities, especially activities based on the internalization and development of criteria for effective writing (observing, comparing, evaluating, and reflecting activities). These are precisely the activities assumed to play a central role in learning to write. Observational learning seems to stimulate these activities naturally, albeit they are not very evident in typical school writing tasks and exercises.
This paper discusses recent developments in policies and practices of immigrant minority language teaching in the Netherlands. It focuses on the realisation of this provision as 'language support'. Within this arrangement, an immigrant minority language is used as a medium of instruction for parts of the regular primary school curriculum. Following Goodlad et al. (1979), we identify different versions of the language support curriculum on the basis of in-depth analyses of policy documents from the national and local government (the formal curriculum), and the National Educational Innovation Centre for Primary Education and the Inspectorate of Education (the ideological curriculum). In addition, we analyse policies and practices with respect to language support at a multicultural primary school on the basis of observations, interviews, and school documents (the perceived, operational and experiential curriculum). The analyses reveal how policy makers, practitioners, and pupils differ in their understanding of the notion of language support. They also show how inaccurate assumptions with respect to the pupils' relative command in Dutch and the minority language impact on actual practices of language support.
Children in Greece are exposed to a unique literary situation as they live in a monolingual society which uses two different alphabetical systems: the Greek alphabet and the Roman alphabet. Since the school curriculum of preschool education does not include the teaching of Greek or non-Greek letters, environmental print is mainly responsible for primitive hypotheses about letters. In this research 504 preschoolers were tested regarding their ability to differentiate between the two alphabets which circulate widely in the Greek urban print environment. It was showed that preschoolers, although unable to read, were able to differentiate between texts written with Greek or Roman letters. This gives strong evidence for the conclusion that, apart from the major role that visual language plays in the reading of environmental print, information about actual letters is also absorbed by preschoolers.
The six articles presented in this issue of L1 – Educational Studies in Language and Literature represent both the language and literature domains of the title. More importantly, they represent the first issue as an exclusively online journal with free access to all readers and members of the International Association for the Improve-ment of Mother Tongue Education.
This review of research in college composition divides the field into research focused on the student writer, the teacher of college composition, and the contexts of writing. The period under review is characterized by the "social turn," an effort to situate the writer within social, political, and other contexts in which teaching and writing take place. The author finds that, early in the 21st century, the field of college composition lacks the sort of monolith—such as the "current rhetorical" tradition that has now been largely abandoned—that galvanized teachers and researchers of college composition in the past. As a consequence, the field presently lacks a clear focus or direction.