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5-LO is the key enzyme in the biosynthesis of proinflammatory leukotrienes, converting arachidonic acid to 5-HPETE, and in a second step 5-HPETE to leukotriene A4. Although the 5-LO promoter possesses characteristics of so called housekeeping genes, such as lack of TATA/CCAAT boxes and existence of several Sp1 binding sites, the 5 -LO gene is tissue specifically expressed in primarily immune competent cells of myeloid origin including granulocytes, monocytes, macrophages, mast cells and B-lymphocytes. 5-LO gene expression in MM6 and HL-60 cells is strongly induced after differentiation of the cells with TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3. In some monocytic cancer cell lines, such as HL-60 TB and U937, TGF-beta and 1,25(OH)2D3 treatment are not able to activate 5-LO gene transcription. It was demonstrated, that in these cell lines the 5-LO core promoter is heavily methylated and that only demethylation by the DNA methyltransferase inhibitor 5-aza-2 deoxycytidine (Adc) upregulated the 5-LO mRNA levels. It was also shown that the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA could induce 5-LO mRNA levels, but only in 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta inducible MM6 cells. Interestingly the 1,25(OH)2D3/TGF-beta effect on 5-LO expression is reduced, when combined with TsA. Reporter gene assays revealed that 5-LO promoter activity is strongly induced after 24 h treatment with 330 nM TsA (construct N10 up to 35 fold in HeLa cells). The effect is dependent on the presence of the proximal Sp1 binding site GC4 (-53 bp to –48 bp in relation to the major TIS) in both HeLa and MM6 cells. In vitro binding of the transcription factor Sp1 to this site has been demonstrated in gel shift assays and DNase I footprints. Mutation of the binding site resulted in a loss of basal promoter activity in both 5-LO negative HeLa cells and in 5-LO positive MM6 cells, as well as in the loss of TsA inducibility. The mutational study of different Sp1 binding sites in a larger promoter context revealed the interaction or respectively the additive effect of the multiple Sp1 binding sites of the 5-LO promoter on basal as well as on TsA upregulated promoter activity. However, GC4 seems to be of special relevance for both the basal promoter activity, possibly recruiting the basal transcription machinery, as well as for the TsA induced upregulation of 5-LO promoter activity. TsA does not alter the protein expression levels of Sp1 and Sp3 as investigated in Western blot analysis, neither in HeLa nor in MM6 cells. DNA affinity purification assays revealed that TsA had no effect on the DNA affinity of Sp1 or Sp3. In vitro binding of both Sp1 and Sp3 to the 5-fold GC box, GC4 and GC5 was demonstrated by DAPA analysis, but histone deacetylase inhibition did not change the associated protein amounts. Finally, in vivo binding of Sp1 and Sp3 was investigated in chromatin immunoprecipitation assay (ChIP) in MM6 cells. TsA clearly induced the association of both proteins to the promoter area surrounding the TIS. Upon TsA treatment also RNA polymerase II binding to the area surrounding the TIS (-318 to +52 bp) was increased and even initiated in the more distal promoter parts –1049 to –292 bp, which are negatively regulated in reporter gene assays. Interestingly histone H4 is already highly acetylated without TsA treatment and the acetylation status of H4 remains unchanged after histone deacetylase inhibition, indicating an open chromatin structure of the 5-LO gene in MM6 cells. In a cotransfection study with Sp1 and Sp3, the transactivating potential of factors was investigated and in accordance with the ChIP data, Sp1 and Sp3 increased the promoter activity, but only after TsA treatment. In gel shift assays, the influence of DNA methylation on Sp1 binding was investigated. The results indicate different roles for the three proximal promoter sites. Whereas Sp1 binding to the 5-fold GC box and GC4 is impaired by DNA methylation, binding to GC5 is even increased. A cotransfection study with methylated 5-LO promoter constructs and the murine methyl-CpG binding proteins suggest MBD1 involvement in the regulation of the 5-LO promoter. Since in gel shifts Sp1 binding is inhibited by DNA methylation, at least to the 5-fold GC box and the activating element GC4, and similarly the mutation/deletion of the same sites strongly reduces or inhibits promoter activity, it is likely to assume, that the loss of promoter activity after in vitro methylation is in the first place due to impaired Sp1/Sp3 binding. Together the data underline the importance and complexity of Sp1/Sp3 binding to the GC rich sites in the regulation of 5-LO promoter activity in response to the histone deacetylase inhibitor TsA as well as in respect to DNA methylation.
The mitochondrial respiratory chain consists of NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase (Complex-I), succinate:ubiquinone reductase (Complex-II), ubiquinol:cytochrome c reductase (Complex-III), cytochrome c oxidase (Complex-IV) and cytochrome c as an electron mediator between Complex-III and Complex-IV. Paracoccus denitrificans membranes were used as a model system for the association of the mitochondrial respiratory chain. More than 50 years ago, a model was given for a supercomplex assembly formed by stable associations between these complexes. This model gradually shifted by the model of random diffusion given by Hackenbrock et al. 1986 Different independent approaches were used to further analyze this situation in a native membrane environment, thus avoiding any perturbation caused by detergent solubilization: (a) measuring the distance and orientation of the different complexes by multi-frequency EPR Spectroscopy we started to analyze simple system, the interaction between CuA fragment derived from P. denitrificans and various c type cytochrome by Pulsed X band and G band (180 GHz) EPR. Partner proteins for the CuA (excess negative surface charge) were (i) horse heart cytochrome c which contain a large number of positive charges in heme crevice,(ii) the cytochrome c552 soluble fragment (physiological electron donor and have positive charges), and as a control (iii) the cytochrome c1 soluble fragment (negative surface potential, derived from bc1 complex) The measurements were performed at several magnetic field positions varying temperature between 5 to 30 K. Both the X band and the high-field measurements show the existence of a strong relaxation enhancement of the CuA by the specific binding of the P. denitrificans cytochrome c552 and horse heart cytochrome c. This relaxation enhancement is dependent on temperature and provides information about the distance and relative orientation of the two interacting spins within this protein-protein complex. (b) For quantitative information about lateral diffusion of cytochrome c oxidase in the native membrane Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) was used. In this experiment, diffusion coefficients for oxidase differ in the case of supercomplex for wild type membrane and for two deletion mutants lacking either Complex-I or Complex-III. (c) The optical absorption spectroscopy at microsecond level resolution was tried for the translational mobility of oxidase in membrane vesicles. Due to the presence of different hemes in the native membrane, carbon monoxide (CO) used as a probe for the experiment. The optimization of the experimental conditions were carried out to get the optimal signal.
Although in general cells are genetically identical in multicellular organisms, the differential expression of genomic information enables cell type definition and specific organ function. In eukaryotic cells, the DNA is associated with histone and non-histones proteins into a restrictive structure called chromatin. Assembly into chromatin does not only protect and package the linear double stranded DNA into the nucleus but is fundamental for the execution of diverse genetic programs. Posttranslational modifications of histones regulate the accessibility of the DNA to transcription factors and serve as scaffold for binding of regulatory proteins. Nuclear receptors are transcription factors that bind specific target sequences on the DNA and recruit transcriptional coregulators at the promoter. These are able to modify the chromatin structure in an activating or repressing manner. The contribution of corepressors to the biological actions of nuclear receptors has turned out to be essential. Impaired corepressor function can be the cause of endocrine malfunctions, neoplastic diseases or severe developmental abnormalities. To better understand the role of the nuclear receptor corepressor N-CoR the unknown function of the extreme C-terminus was investigated. In this thesis the interaction of N-CoR with the non-POU-domain containing octamer-binding protein Non0/p54nrb, that was found tobe a potential interaction partner in a yeast-two-hybrid screen, was confirmed. This protein contains two RNA recognition motifs (RRM) and is described as a multifunctional protein since it is involved in transcription Initiation as well as in pre-mRNA processing. The RRM1 motif was determined to be essential and sufficient for the interaction with N-CoR. Obtaining dominant negative effect with the Non0/p54nrb RRM1 deletion mutant in functional reporter assays, data support that NonO modulates the capacity of N-CoR to repress and alters the recruitment of N-CoR by nuclear receptors to targeted Promoters. Additional analyses suggest that the N- and C- terminus of N-CoR are involved in intramolecular interactions and that they regulate each other. Taken results together a functional model is proposed that supports the biological relevance of the interaction of N-CoR with NonO and the function of N-CoR C-terminus acting as asensor that evaluates the ratio of corepressors and coactivators in the nuclear receptor environment. N-CoR repressive capacity would be altered by modulating factors like NonO that interacts with N-CoR C-terminus. The mechanism support that splicing and transcription regulation are physically and functionallylinked to ensure the appropriate amount of messager RNA to be transcript and process in response to stimulation intensity and cell context.
The goal of this thesis was the development, evaluation and application of novel virtual screening approaches for the rational compilation of high quality pharmacological screening libraries. The criteria for a high quality were a high probability of the selected molecules to be active compared to randomly selected molecules and diversity in the retrieved chemotypes of the selected molecules to be prepared for the attrition of single lead structures. For the latter criterion the virtual screening approach had to perform “scaffold hopping”. The first molecular descriptor that was explicitly reported for that purpose was the topological pharmacophore CATS descriptor, representing a correlation vector (CV) of all pharmacophore points in a molecule. The representation is alignment-free and thus renders fast screening of large databases feasible. In a first series of experiments the CATS descriptor was conceptually extended to the three-dimensional pharmacophore-pair CATS3D descriptor and the molecular surface based SURFCATS descriptor. The scaling of the CATS3D descriptor, the combination of CATS3D with different similarity metrics and the dependence of the CATS3D descriptor on the threedimensional conformations of the molecules in the virtual screening database were evaluated in retrospective screening experiments. The “scaffold hopping” capabilities of CATS3D and SURFCATS were compared to CATS and the substructure fingerprint MACCS keys. Prospective virtual screening with CATS3D similarity searching was applied for the TAR RNA and the metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGlur5). A combination of supervised and unsupervised neural networks trained on CATS3D descriptors was applied prospectively to compile a focused but still diverse library of mGluR5 modulators. In a second series of experiments the SQUID fuzzy pharmacophore model method was developed, that was aimed to provide a more general query for virtual screening than the CATS family descriptors. A prospective application of the fuzzy pharmacophore models was performed for TAR RNA ligands. In a last experiment a structure-/ligand-based pharmacophore model was developed for taspase1 based on a homology model of the enzyme. This model was applied prospectively for the screening for the first inhibitors of taspase1. The effect of different similarity metrics (Euc: Euclidean distance, Manh: Manhattan distance and Tani: Tanimoto similarity) and different scaling methods (unscaled, scaling1: scaling by the number of atoms, and scaling2: scaling by the added incidences of potential pharmacophore points of atom pairs) on CATS3D similarity searching was evaluated in retrospective virtual screening experiments. 12 target classes of the COBRA database of annotated ligands from recent scientific literature were used for that purpose. Scaling2, a new development for the CATS3D descriptor, was shown to perform best on average in combination with all three similarity metrics (enrichment factor ef (1%): Manh = 11.8 ± 4.3, Euc = 11.9 ± 4.6, Tani = 12.8 ± 5.1). The Tanimoto coefficient was found to perform best with the new scaling method. Using the other scaling methods the Manhattan distance performed best (ef (1%): unscaled: Manh = 9.6 ± 4.0, Euc = 8.1 ± 3.5, Tani = 8.3 ± 3.8; scaling1: Manh = 10.3 ± 4.1, Euc = 8.8 ± 3.6, Tani = 9.1 ± 3.8). Since CATS3D is independent of an alignment, the dependence of a “receptor relevant” conformation might also be weaker compared to other methods like docking. Using such methods might be a possibility to overcome problems like protein flexibility or the computational expensive calculation of many conformers. To test this hypothesis, co-crystal structures of 11 target classes served as queries for virtual screening of the COBRA database. Different numbers of conformations were calculated for the COBRA database. Using only a single conformation already resulted in a significant enrichment of isofunctional molecules on average (ef (1%) = 6.0 ± 6.5). This observation was also made for ligand classes with many rotatable bonds (e.g. HIV-protease: 19.3 ± 6.2 rotatable bonds in COBRA, ef (1%) = 12.2 ± 11.8). On average only an improvement from using the maximum number of conformations (on average 37 conformations / molecule) to using single conformations of 1.1 fold was found. It was found that using more conformations actives and inactives equally became more similar to the reference compounds according to the CATS3D representations. Applying the same parameters as before to calculate conformations for the crystal structure ligands resulted in an average Cartesian RMSD of the single conformations to the crystal structure conformations of 1.7 ± 0.7 Å. For the maximum number of conformations, the RMSD decreased to 1.0 ± 0.5 Å (1.8 fold improvement on average). To assess the virtual screening performance and the scaffold hopping potential of CATS3D and SURFACATS, these descriptors were compared to CATS and the MACCS keys, a fingerprint based on exact chemical substructures. Retrospective screening of ten classes of the COBRA database was performed. According to the average enrichment factors the MACCS keys performed best (ef (1%): MACCS = 17.4 ± 6.4, CATS = 14.6 ± 5.4, CATS3D = 13.9 ± 4.9, SURFCATS = 12.2 ± 5.5). The classes, where MACCS performed best, consisted of a lower average fraction of different scaffolds relative to the number of molecules (0.44 ± 0.13), than the classes, where CATS performed best (0.65 ± 0.13). CATS3D was the best performing method for only a single target class with an intermediate fraction of scaffolds (0.55). SURFCATS was not found to perform best for a single class. These results indicate that CATS and the CATS3D descriptors might be better suited to find novel scaffolds than the MACCS keys. All methods were also shown to complement each other by retrieving scaffolds that were not found by the other methods. A prospective evaluation of CATS3D similarity searching was done for metabotropic glutamate receptor 5 (mGluR5) allosteric modulators. Seven known antagonists of mGluR5 with sub-micromolar IC50 were used as reference ligands for virtual screening of the 20,000 most drug-like compounds – as predicted by an artificial neural network approach – of the Asinex vendor database (194,563 compounds). Eight of 29 virtual screening hits were found with a Ki below 50 µM in a binding assay. Most of the ligands were only moderately specific for mGluR5 (maximum of > 4.2 fold selectivity) relative to mGluR1, the most similar receptor to mGluR5. One ligand exhibited even a better Ki for mGluR1 than for mGluR5 (mGluR5: Ki > 100 µM, mGluR1: Ki = 14 µM). All hits had different scaffolds than the reference molecules. It was demonstrated that the compiled library contained molecules that were different from the reference structures – as estimated by MACCS substructure fingerprints – but were still considered isofunctional by both CATS and CATS3D pharmacophore approaches. Artificial neural networks (ANN) provide an alternative to similarity searching in virtual screening, with the advantage that they incorporate knowledge from a learning procedure. A combination of artificial neural networks for the compilation of a focused but still structurally diverse screening library was employed prospectively for mGluR5. Ensembles of neural networks were trained on CATS3D representations of the training data for the prediction of “mGluR5-likeness” and for “mGluR5/mGluR1 selectivity”, the most similar receptor to mGluR5, yielding Matthews cc between 0.88 and 0.92 as well as 0.88 and 0.91 respectively. The best 8,403 hits (the focused library: the intersection of the best hits from both prediction tasks) from virtually ranking the Enamine vendor database (ca. 1,000,000 molecules), were further analyzed by two self-organizing maps (SOMs), trained on CATS3D descriptors and on MACCS substructure fingerprints. A diverse and representative subset of the hits was obtained by selecting the most similar molecules to each SOM neuron. Binding studies of the selected compounds (16 molecules from each map) gave that three of the molecules from the CATS3D SOM and two of the molecules from the MACCS SOM showed mGluR5 binding. The best hit with a Ki of 21 µM was found in the CATS3D SOM. The selectivity of the compounds for mGluR5 over mGluR1 was low. Since the binding pockets in the two receptors are similar the general CATS3D representation might not have been appropriate for the prediction of selectivity. In both SOMs new active molecules were found in neurons that did not contain molecules from the training set, i. e. the approach was able to enter new areas of chemical space with respect to mGluR5. The combination of supervised and unsupervised neural networks and CATS3D seemed to be suited for the retrieval of dissimilar molecules with the same class of biological activity, rather than for the optimization of molecules with respect to activity or selectivity. A new virtual screening approach was developed with the SQUID (Sophisticated Quantification of Interaction Distributions) fuzzy pharmacophore method. In SQUID pairs of Gaussian probability densities are used for the construction of a CV descriptor. The Gaussians represent clusters of atoms comprising the same pharmacophoric feature within an alignment of several active reference molecules. The fuzzy representation of the molecules should enhance the performance in scaffold hopping. Pharmacophore models with different degrees of fuzziness (resolution) can be defined which might be an appropriate means to compensate for ligand and receptor flexibility. For virtual screening the 3D distribution of Gaussian densities is transformed into a two-point correlation vector representation which describes the probability density for the presence of atom-pairs, comprising defined pharmacophoric features. The fuzzy pharmacophore CV was used to rank CATS3D representations of molecules. The approach was validated by retrospective screening for cyclooxygenase 2 (COX-2) and thrombin ligands. A variety of models with different degrees of fuzziness were calculated and tested for both classes of molecules. Best performance was obtained with pharmacophore models reflecting an intermediate degree of fuzziness. Appropriately weighted fuzzy pharmacophore models performed better in retrospective screening than CATS3D similarity searching using single query molecules, for both COX-2 and thrombin (ef (1%): COX-2: SQUID = 39.2., best CATS3D result = 26.6; Thrombin: SQUID = 18.0, best CATS3D result = 16.7). The new pharmacophore method was shown to complement MOE pharmacophore models. SQUID fuzzy pharmacophore and CATS3D virtual screening were applied prospectively to retrieve novel scaffolds of RNA binding molecules, inhibiting the Tat-TAR interaction. A pharmacophore model was built up from one ligand (acetylpromazine, IC50 = 500 µM) and a fragment of another known ligand (CGP40336A), which was assumed to bind with a comparable binding mode as acetylpromazine. The fragment was flexible aligned to the TAR bound NMR conformation of acetylpromazine. Using an optimized SQUID pharmacophore model the 20,000 most druglike molecules from the SPECS database (229,658 compounds) were screened for Tat-TAR ligands. Both reference inhibitors were also applied for CATS3D similarity searching. A set of 19 molecules from the SQUID and CATS3D results was selected for experimental testing. In a fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) assay the best SQUID hit showed an IC50 value of 46 µM, which represents an approximately tenfold improvement over the reference acetylpromazine. The best hit from CATS3D similarity searching showed an IC50 comparable to acetylpromazine (IC50 = 500 µM). Both hits contained different molecular scaffolds than the reference molecules. Structure-based pharmacophores provide an alternative to ligand-based approaches, with the advantage that no ligands have to be known in advance and no topological bias is introduced. The latter is e.g. favorable for hopping from peptide-like substrates to drug-like molecules. A homology model of the threonine aspartase taspase1 was calculated based on the crystal structures of a homologous isoaspartyl peptidase. Docking studies of the substrate with GOLD identified a binding mode where the cleaved bond was situated directly above the reactive N-terminal threonine. The predicted enzyme-substrate complex was used to derive a pharmacophore model for virtual screening for novel taspase1 inhibitors. 85 molecules were identified from virtual screening with the pharmacophore model as potential taspase1- inhibitors, however biochemical data was not available before the end of this thesis. In summary this thesis demonstrated the successful development, improvement and application of pharmacophore-based virtual screening methods for the compilation of molecule-libraries for early phase drug development. The highest potential of such methods seemed to be in scaffold hopping, the non-trivial task of finding different molecules with the same biological activity.
The Kaon-Spectrometer (KaoS) at the heavy-ion synchrotron (SIS) at the Gesellschaft für Schwerionenforschung (GSI) in Darmstadt has been used to study production and propagation of K+ and K- mesons from Au+Au collisions at a kinetic beam energy of 1.5 AGeV. This energy for K+ mesons is close to the corresponding production threshold in binary nucleon-nucleon collisions and far below for K- mesons. The azimuthal angular distributions of particles as a function of the collision centrality and particle transverse momenta have been measured. The properties of strange mesons are expected to be modified by the in-medium meson-baryon potential. Theoretical calculations show that the superposition of the scalar and vector potentials leads to a small repulsive K+N and a strong attractive K-N potential. Additionally, the interaction of kaons and antikaons with nuclear matter is different. The strangeness conservation law inhibits the absorption probability of K+ mesons as they contain an s-quark. K- mesons, however, interact with nucleons via strangenessexchange (K- + N ->Y + pion, where Y = lambda, sigma). Moreover, the reverse process (pion + Y -> K- + N) is the dominant production mechanism of K- mesons at SIS energies. The azimuthal angular emission patterns of kaons are expected to be sensitive to the in-medium potentials. An enhanced out-of-plane emission of K+ mesons was observed in Au+Au reactions at 1.0 AGeV and 1.5 AGeV, and also in Ni+Ni at 1.93 AGeV. The out-of-plane emission of K+ mesons in Au+Au reactions at 1.0 AGeV was interpreted as a consequence of a repulsive K+N potential in the nuclear medium, however, recent transport calculations show that the emission patterns obtained in Au+Au at 1.5 AGeV and Ni+Ni at 1.93 AGeV are additionally influenced by the re-scattering of kaons. For K- mesons the calculations predict an almost isotropic emission pattern due to the attractive K-N potential which counteracts the absorption of K- mesons in the spectator fragments. In Ni+Ni collisions at 1.93 AGeV the azimuthal distribution of K- mesons has been found to be isotropic. In this case, however, the spectators are rather small and have large relative velocities. In addition, the delay of antikaon emission due to strangenessexchange reaction minimizes the interaction with the spectators. As a consequence the sensitivity of the K- meson emission pattern to the K-N in-medium potential is reduced. In Au+Au collisions we found a dependence of the K- meson azimuthal emission pattern on the transverse momentum. The antikaons registered with pt < 0.5 GeV/c are preferentially emitted in the reaction plane and the particles with pt > 0.5 GeV/c show strong out-of-plane enhancement. The emission patterns of K- can be explained in terms of two competing phenomena: one of them is indeed the influence of the attractive K-N potential, however, the second one originates from the strangeness-exchange process.
Soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) is a cytosolic enzyme producing the intracellular messenger cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) on activation with nitric oxide (NO) which leads to the activation of GMP dependent protein kinases and to vasodilation. NO signaling may be affected by altered expression of sGC subunits, as has been shown in different pathological and physiological conditions and developmental stages. The molecular mechanisms underlying altered sGC expression in these and other conditions have not yet been revealed. Gene expression can also be regulated at the level of mRNA through alterations in translational efficiency and in mRNA stability. HuR (Human R) is a ubiquitously expressed member of the embryonic lethal abnormal vision (ELAV) family of RNA-binding proteins. Among other RNAs, there has been recent evidence that the expression of sGC is subject to post-transcriptional regulation by HuR. It has been shown that chronic hypertension induces changes in HuR expression and activity, which account for decreased sGC expression and activity in the aorta of hypertensive rats. This thesis should study was performed in an effort to provide some insight to the transcriptional and post-transcriptional regulation of sGC expression in a mammal, the rat. We investigated rat sGC alpha-1 transcriptional regulation in rat lung fibroblast (RLF-6) cells. The 3000bp 5' upstream region of the alpha-1 sGC gene was isolated and analyzed for promoter activity by using luciferase reporter constructs- Alpha3000 (with -2794 bp), Alpha1100 (-1092 bp), Alpha350 (-346 bp) and Alpha200 (-200 bp). The promoter activity was the highest in the 200bp construct (about 6-fold higher than Alpha3000) suggesting that this fragment contains all the crucial elements necessary to support basal transcription of the alpha-1 sGC gene. Analysis of the 200 bp of the 5’ UTR of the alpha-1 gene was performed using the MATINSPECTOR V2.2 software for putative transcription factors. The constructs containing the deleted sites for NFY and Sp1 showed a significant decrease in constitutive promoter activity by almost 80% and 60% respectively, implying that these transcription factors are crucial elements in the basal expression of the of sGC alpha-1 subunit. Treatment of RLF-6 cells with genistein 50 microM and mithramycinA 100 nM, known to inhibit the NFY and Sp1 binding to DNA respectively, reflected the same effects. Furthermore the cGMP content of the cells was significantly reduced by both inhibitors, almost completely by genistein, and by about 40 % by mithramycinA. Electrophoretic mobility-shift assay (EMSA) clearly showed the formation of multiple complexes with the biotinylated ODN (decoy oligodeoxynucleotide) probes for NFY and Sp1 when incubated with RLF-6 nuclear extract. A “supershift” observed in the presence of antibodies to the individual transcription factors confirmed that these factors were present in the shifted band, indeed. NFY and Sp1 are instrumental in several physiological and pathophysiological effects mediated by several growth factors in smooth muscle cells. Thus the regulation of the promoter, in response to serum, was also analysed. 10% foetal calf serum led to decreased alpha-1 sGC level as shown by western blots performed with rat aorta. Decreased sGC alpha-1 mRNA expression was observed in RLF-6 cells and cultured rat aortic smooth muscle cells incubated with FCS for 24 hours. This decrease was reflected in the promoter activity in RLF-6 cells using both Alpha3000 and Alpha200 constructs confirming that the regulation took place at promoter level. EMSA performed with nuclear extracts from FCS treated RLF-6 cells led to diminished binding to NFY, but to an enhanced binding to Sp1 site. We concluded that the factors Sp1 and NFY (the sites overlapping) compete for binding, and in the presence of FCS, it is Sp1 that binds stronger, and hence results in diminishing promoter activity. In order to delineate the post-transcriptional regulation of sGC alpha-1 subunit, studies were performed to demonstrate the regulation of expression of the mRNA stabilizing protein HuR. It has been observed that exposure of isolated rat aortic segments to the activator of adenylyl cyclase, forskolin, strongly reduced sGC alpha-1/beta-1 and HuR protein and mRNA expression in a time-dependent and actinomycin D-sensitive fashion. Transcription factor decoy approach proved that the cAMP-induced down-regulation of HuR is mediated by the activation of AP-1. It has been established that HuR stabilises the sGC alpha-1 and beta-1 mRNA. However the pathway underlying this regulation remains unknown. In order to identify the mechanism of this regulation, we looked for HuR interacting proteins employing the yeast two hybrid assay. The enzyme of the polyamine catabolic pathway spermidine/spermine N1-acetyltransferase (SSAT) was found to interact with the hinge region of HuR. This interaction was confirmed by performing immunoprecipitation and GST-pulldown experiments. A direct effect of these proteins on each other’s biological activity was not visible as tested through the SSAT activity assay and HuR gel shift. It might be possible that SSAT-mediated modulation of local polyamine concentrations enhances/reduces HuR activity and sGC expression to affect cell proliferation. In summary, this study represents an analysis of the rat sGC alpha-1 promoter regulation in rat fibroblast cells and identifies NFY and Sp1 as important factors in sGC alpha-1 expression. It also gives first evidence of sGC regulation at the transcriptional level in response to an external stimulus, and proposes the possible mechanism. It also identifies SSAT as a HuR interacting protein. These might have implications in the various pathophysiological conditions where sGC plays an important role.
Boswellia serrata gum resin extracts (frankincense) have been used for centuries in folk medicine in Asia and Africa. They have shown beneficial therapeutic effects, particularly in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. Clinical studies on humans confirmed an anti-inflammatory and anti-cancer potential of Frankincense preparations. Boswellic acids (BAs) are the major ingredients, responsible for the pharmacological action of the extracts. Molecular and cellular studies with BAs revealed a number of targets including 5-lipoxygenase (LO), topoisomerases and the NF-κB pathway. Since there is little information on the modulation of cellular physiology by BAs, this work was designed to provide a detailed investigation of the cellular and molecular effects of BAs in several cell types related to inflammation. We report that 11-keto-BAs are potent activators of functional responses in human neutrophils, a type of leukocytes mediating acute inflammatory processes. Neutrophil activation by 11-keto-BAs is reflected by enhanced generation of oxygen radicals, release of arachidonic acid (AA) and the subsequent transformation of AA to pro-inflammatory eicosanoids. Investigation of the participating signalling pathways identified Ca2+, phosphoinositide-3 kinase, and members of the MAP kinase family (ERKs) as mediators. Second, we present a detailed study of the modulation of human platelet physiology and intracellular signalling events by BAs. Intriguingly, we discovered an inverse structure-activity relationship of BAs regarding platelet activation, with 11-methylene-BAs being superior over 11-keto-BAs. Thus, 11-methylene-BAs stimulated platelet Ca2+ mobilisation, MAP kinase and Akt activation, AA release, 12-LO and cyclooxygenase product formation, and thrombin generation. Novel Ca2+-independent activation pathways of platelet lipid metabolism were discovered. In contrast, 11-keto-BAs were inactive but found to inhibit platelet (p)12-LO directly. Interaction with p12-LO was confirmed in a pulldown assay using immobilised BAs as bait. Finally, BAs were shown to attenuate the activation of monocytes, a cell type responsible for the maintenance of chronic inflammatory states. Impairment of Ca2+ homeostasis is likely conferred by inhibition of Ca2+ influx channels. Taken together, our results shed light on the modulation of intracellular physiology of inflammatory cells by BAs, contributing to a better understanding of the anti-inflammatory effects exerted by frankincense preparations.
The generation of O2- by NADPH oxidaes was mainly attributed to immune cells that kill invading bacteria or cancer cells. But importantly, in the past several years, several homologs of the catalytic subunit gp91phox (Nox2) of the phagocytic NADPH oxidase have been identified in non-immune cells and tissues. Superoxide production derived from NADPH oxidaes has been shown to play a role not only in host defense but also in defined signaling cascades mediating growth and apoptosis. The aim of this work was to study the expression and the regulation of the”new” Nox isoforms in rat renal mesangial cells (MC). In particular the following results were achieved. 1) mRNA’s for both Nox1 and Nox4 were detected by RT-PCR. 2) Nox1 mRNA levels were increased upon exposure to basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) and fetal calf serum (FCS) in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Exposure of MC to bFGF and FCS increased also basal production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) by MC. By contrast, Nox4 mRNA levels were not significantly affected by bFGF treatment, but were markedly down-regulated by PDGF and FCS. 3) To study the regulation of Nox1 on the protein level, an anti-Nox1 antibody was generated and characterized using affinity chromatography. Up-regulation of Nox1 expression by growth factors was confirmed also on the protein level. 4) Based on the already known cDNA sequence for Nox1, the transcriptional start site was determined by the “gene RACE” technique. 2547 bp of the genomic sequence of the 5´-flanking region of the Nox1 gene were cloned and sequenced using the „Genome-Walking“ method. To study the regulation of Nox1 transcription functional Nox1 promoter/luciferase fusions were be established. MC were transiently transfected with different promoter/luciferase constructs and stimulated with growth factors. By measuring luciferase activity it was determined that growth factors induced the Nox1 transcription and that the Nox1 core promoter is sufficient for the activation. 5) By measurement of superoxide radicals and analysis of Nox1 mRNA expression by quantitative RT-PCR (TaqMan) as well as protein level by Western blotting it could be shown that treatment of MC with NO donors inhibited the expression of Nox1 in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Moreover, using activators and inhibitors of the soluble guanylyl cyclase (sGC) it could be shown, that the activation of sGC mediates the effect of NO on Nox1 expression. However, NO had no inhibitory effect on Nox1 promoter activity. Experiments with the inhibitor of transcription, actinomycin D, suggest that NO-mediated regulation of Nox1 is triggered probably via post-transcriptional mechanisms. Nox4 is regulated on the mRNA levels in a similar manner as Nox1. 6) To analyze the sub-cellular localization of the Nox isoforms, coding sequences for Nox1 and Nox4 were fused together with green fluorescent protein into the pEGFP-N1 demonstrated that both isoforms are localized predominantly in the plasma membrane, but also in the perinuclear region and cytoplasm. However, the localization of Nox1 in the plasma membrane was more pronounced. 7) In addition to Nox1 and Nox4, mRNA of the newly identified NOXA1 that is a homolog of the p67phox subunit of NADPH oxidase was detected in MC by RT-PCR.
The heat stress response is characterized by the presence of heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) which mediate transcription of heat stress genes. In tomato (Lycopersicon peruvianum) cell cultures the simultaneous expression of four Hsfs, which are either constitutively (HsfA1 and HsfA3) or heat-stress inducible (HsfA2 and HsfB1) expressed, results in a complex network with dynamically changing cellular levels, intracellular localization and functional interactions. In order to examine the relevance of their multiplicity as well as to get more insights into the complexity of the plant heat stress response, the individual tomato Hsfs were investigated with respect to their protein interactions in vitro and in vivo. To this aim, I used pull-down assays as well as yeast assays to study the following aspects: 1. Oligomeric state of Hsfs: the results show that all class A Hsfs (HsfA1, HsfA2 and HsfA3) are trimeric proteins and interact with each other via the oligomerization (HR-A/B) domain. The similarity of their HRA/B regions allows formation of homo- and heterooligomeric complexes between all class A Hsfs. This special property was investigated by mutational studies with HsfA2 indicating that the linker and the HR-B regions are the minimal part required for Hsf/Hsf interactions. The conserved hydrophobic amino acid residues of the HR-B region are most important whereas the amino acid residues of the linker may provide higher flexibility to the HR-B region. Another investigated factor was HsfB1. HsfB1 is a member of class B Hsfs, which are characterized by an oligomerization domain without the 21 amino acid residues linker inserted between the HR-A and HR-B regions. It has a low activator potential and exists exclusively as dimer. HsfB1 can not physically interact with class A Hsfs. However, HsfB1 and HsfA1, binding to adjacent HSE sites, are assumed to cause strong synergistic effects in gene activation. 2. Potential HsfB1 interacting proteins: we searched for HsfB1 interacting proteins by using recombinant His-tagged proteins with HsfB1 as baits in pull-down assays. Histones H2A, H2B and H4 were identified by means of Peptide Mass Finger Printing and N-terminal sequencing analyses. The three histones represent the major proteins in tomato whole cell extracts retrieved by HsfB1. 3. HsfA2/small heat stress proteins (sHsps) interaction: pull-down and yeast two-hybrid assays were used to study the specific interaction of HsfA2 with tomato class II sHsp. This interaction occurs via the oligomerization domain of HsfA2. Other members of the plant Hsp20 family, including class I sHsp, do not interact with HsfA2. Heterooligomers of HsfA2 with class II sHsp may represent precursor forms of the plant higher molecular weight cytoplasmic complexes of heat stress granules, which form during heat stress. The findings presented in this thesis are a contribution to support the concept of a Hsfs network via protein-protein interactions. These data, together with information obtained from other studies, are used to propose a tentative model of the complex Hsfs network controlling the plant heat stress response.
Identification and characterization of TNFalpha responsive genes in human breast cancer cells
(2006)
One of the hallmarks of cancer is the escape of the transformed cells from apoptosis. Therefore, the identification of survival genes, allowing cancer cells to circumvent programmed cell death, could provide new diagnostic markers as well as targets for therapeutic intervention. A well known transcription factor regulating the balance between pro- and anti- apoptotic factors is NF-kappaB, which is strongly induced by tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFalpha). When cells are stimulated by TNFalpha their response is biphasic with an initial NF-kappaB induction of survival genes which is overridden by the subsequent activation of initiator caspases triggering apoptosis. By combining gene trap mutagenesis with site specific recombination a strategy was developed, which enriches for genes induced by TNFalpha in the human breast cancer cell line MCF-7. The strategy relies on a one way gene expression switch based on Cre/loxP mediated recombination, which uncouples the expression of a marker gene from the trapped cellular promoter thereby enabling the recovery of genes that are only transiently induced by TNFalpha. The marker gene used in these experiments was a dominant negative variant of the TNFalpha-receptor associated protein FADD (dnFADD), which blocks the apoptotic branch of the TNFalpha induced signaling pathway. Initial experiments indicated that MCF-7 cells expressing high levels of dnFADD were insensitive to TNFalpha induced apoptosis and therefore suitable for the installment of a one way gene expression switch susceptible to Cre/loxP mediated recombination. A MCF-7 reporter clone harboring the recombinase dependent gene expression switch was infected with the gene trap retrovirus U3Cre, which inserts the Cre recombinase gene into a large collection of chromosomal sites. Insertion of Cre downstream of an active cellular promoter induces dnFADD expression from the gene expression switch enabling the cells to block TNFalpha triggered apoptosis. From a gene trap integration library containing approximately 2000000 unique proviral integrations, 69 unique TNFalpha inducible gene trap insertion sites were recovered in a two step selection procedure. Sequencing of the genomic regions adjacent to the insertion sites, which were obtained by inverse PCR (gene trap sequence tags, GTSTs), and data base analysis revealed that 42% of the GTSTs belonged to annotated genes, 13% to known cDNAs with open reading frames, 17% to Genscan predicted genes, 9% to ESTs, 9% to repetitive sequences and 10% to unannotated genomic sequence. Overall, 44% of the annotated genes recovered in this screen were directly or indirectly related to cancer, indicating that the gene trap strategy developed here is suitable for the identification of cancer relevant genes. Analysis of the expression patterns of the trapped and annotated genes in wild type cells revealed that 19 out of 24 genes were either up- or down- regulated by a factor of at least 1.45 by TNFalpha. A large fraction of the gene trap insertions were located upstream, in introns or in opposite orientation to annotated transcripts, indicating that the strategy efficiently recovers non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). While the biological significance of these transcripts still needs to be elucidated, they fall into two main categories. The first category includes gene trap insertions upstream of genes, which could either represent regulatory RNAs interacting with promoter elements or transcripts driven by bidirectional promoters. The second includes inverse orientation gene trap insertions in introns of annotated genes suggesting the presence of natural antisense transcripts (NATs). Interestingly, more than 50% of all antisense integrations are located downstream of transcription start sites predicted by different algorithms supporting the existence of RNAs transcribed from the corresponding genomic regions. Intronic integrations on the coding strand could be derived from cryptic splicing, alternative promoter usage or additional, so far uncharacterized transcripts. Preliminary functional analysis of two genes recovered in this screen encoding the transcription factor ZFP67 and the FLJ14451 protein revealed that FLJ14451 but not ZFP67 inhibited anchorage independent growth in soft agar, suggesting that FLJ14451 might have some tumor suppressor functions. In summary, besides identifying a putative tumor suppressor protein, the present experiments have shown that gene trapping is useful in identifying non-coding transcripts in living cells and may turn out to be the method of choice in characterizing these transcripts whose functions are still largely unknown.