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"Autonomy is the condition under which what one does reflects who one is" (Weinrib, 2019, p.8). This quote encapsulates the core idea of autonomy, namely the correspondence of one’s inner values with one’s actions. This is a beautiful idea. After all, who wants their actions to be determined or controlled from the outside?
The classical definition of autonomy is precisely about this independence from external circumstances, which Murray (1938) primarily coined. Among other things, Murray characterizes autonomy as resistance to influence and defiance of authority. Similarly, Piaget (1983) describes individuals as autonomous, independent of external influences, in their thinking and actions, and foremost, adult authority. Subsequent work criticized this equation of autonomy with separation or independence (Bekker, 1993; Chirkov et al., 2003; Hmel & Pincus, 2002). In lieu thereof, autonomy is defined as an ability (Chirkov, 2011; Rössler, 2017) and as an essential human need (Ryan & Deci, 2006). Focus is now
on self-governing while relying on rationally determined values to pursue a happy life (Chirkov, 2011). According to Social Determination Theory (SDT), autonomy is about a sense of initiative and responsibility for one’s own actions. The experience of interest and appreciation can strengthen autonomy, whereas experiences of external control, e.g., through rewards or punishments, limit autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2020). In the psychological discourse of autonomy, SDT is strongly represented (Chirkov et al., 2003; Koestner & Losier, 1996; Weinstein et al., 2012). Notably, SDT distinguishes between autonomy and independence as follows. While a person can autonomously ask for help or rely on others, a person can also be involuntarily alone and independent. Interestingly, these definitions are again closer to its etymological meaning as self-governing, originating from Greek αυτòνoμζ (autonomous).
The two strands of autonomy as independence and autonomy as self-determination are also reflected in the vital differentiation into reactive and reflective autonomy by Koestner and Losier (1996). Resisting external influence, particularly interpersonal in fluence, is what reactive autonomy entails. This interpretation is closely related to the classical concept of autonomy as separation and independence from others (Murray, 1938). On the other hand, reflective autonomy concerns intrapersonal processes, such as self-governing or self-regulation, as defined in Self-Determination Theory (Ryan et al., 2021). In this dissertation, we investigated the concept in three different approaches while focusing on its assessment and operationalization: To begin, in Article 1, we compared the layperson’s and the scientific perspective to each other to gain insight into the characteristics of autonomy. Then, in Articles 2 and 3, we experimentally tested behavioral autonomy as resistance to external influences. Simultaneously, we investigated the link between various autonomy trait measures and autonomous behavior. As a result, in Article 2, we looked at how people reacted to the effects of message framing and sender authority on social distancing behavior during the early COVID-19 pandemic. Finally, in Article 3 we investigated the resistance to a descriptive norm in answering factual questions, in the context of autonomous personality. In our first article, we used a semi-qualitative bottom-up approach to gain insights into the laypersons’ perspective on autonomy and compare it to the scientific notion. We followed a design proposed by Kraft-Todd and Rand (2019) on the term heroism. We derived five components from philosophical and psychological literature: dignity, independence from others, morality, self-awareness, and unconventionality. In three preregistered online studies, we compared these scientific components to the laypersons’ understanding of autonomy. In Study 1, participants (N = 222) listed at least three and up to ten examples of autonomous (self-determined) behaviors. Here, the participants named 807 meaningful examples, which we systematically categorized into 34 representative items for Study 2. Next, new participants (N = 114) rated these regarding their autonomy. Finally, we transferred the five highest-rated autonomy and the five lowest-rated autonomy items to Study 3 (N = 175). We asked participants to rate how strongly the items represented dignity, independence from others, morality, self-awareness, and unconventionality. We found all components to distinguish between high and low autonomy items but not for unconventionality. Thus, we conclude that laypersons’ view corresponds with the scientific characteristics of dignity, independence from others, self-awareness, and morality. A qualitative analysis of the examples also showed that both reactive and reflective definitions of autonomy are prevalent.
Obesity is considered as a type of chronic inflammation. It enhances the risk of developing cardiovascular disease, diabetes, and some cancers. The key players in the induction of inflammation in adipose tissue are macrophages. However the mechanism of macrophage activation in obese fat tissue is still not fully understood. Elevated level of saturated fatty acids in adipose tissue promotes inflammation and insulin resistance. Exposure of macrophages to saturated fatty acids stimulates pro-inflammatory c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), nuclear factor kappa B (NF-kB) signaling, and production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-8, IL-1β, and TNFα. Palmitate is a major saturated free fatty acid released by adipocytes. It activates inflammatory pathways through Toll-like receptors (TLR) 2 and 4, provokes endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress and increases levels of diacylglycerols (DAGs) and ceramides. Saturated fatty acids also affect cellular oxidative metabolism. Thus, mitochondrial fatty acid oxidation reduces ER-stress and expression of inflammatory cytokines in palmitate-treated macrophages. On the other hand mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) promote palmitate-mediated pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Recently, mitochondrial functions were linked to their morphology. Mitochondrial fission has been reported in β-cells and myocytes in response to high levels of glucose and free fatty acids, and was associated with disruption of mitochondrial functions, increased ROS level, and cell death. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of mitochondrial fragmentation in palmitate-induced inflammation in human macrophages. In our settings fatty acids, independently of their saturation, affected mitochondrial morphology. Mixtures of long chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids as well as triglyceride-rich lipoprotein lipolysis products promoted mitochondrial fission. Mitochondrial fragmentation in palmitate-treated macrophages revealed a time- and concentration-dependent character, and was reversible upon palmitate removal. This observation, together with unaltered levels of mitochondrial protein and DNA content, and intact mitochondrial respiration, suggested that mitochondria were not damaged and were functionally active. Mechanistically, palmitate-induced mitochondrial fragmentation was not regulated by ER stress or loss of mitochondrial membrane potential. However, inhibition of palmitate incorporation into mitochondrial membrane phospholipids decreased mitochondrial fragmentation. Other approach to prevent mitochondrial fission was the inhibition of dynamin-related protein 1 (DRP1) activity, which drives mitochondrial fission by forming ring- like structures around mitochondria and constricting mitochondrial membranes. Palmitate altered mitochondrial membrane lipid composition and promoted DRP1-oligomerization. The inhibition of palmitate-induced mitochondrial fragmentation enhanced mitochondrial ROS production, c-Jun phosphorylation, and upregulated expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Taken together, these results suggest that mitochondrial fragmentation is a protective mechanism attenuating palmitate-induced inflammatory responses. Future experiments will be required to investigate the role of mitochondrial fragmentation in obesity-associated diseases in vivo.
Hintergrund: Seit mehr als 50 Jahren werden in Deutschland Herzschrittmacher-Implantationen durchgeführt, mittlerweile mit mehr als 100.000 Implantationen pro Jahr. Obwohl es sich um einen gängigen Eingriff handelt, existieren wenig prospektiv randomisierte Studien zu technischen Aspekten der Implantation, insbesondere dem Wundverschluss am Ende der Operation. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war es, an einem Kollektiv von Patienten unerwünschte Ereignisse und kosmetische Ergebnisse, in Abhängigkeit des beim Hautverschluss verwendeten Nahtmaterials (resorbierbarer bzw. nicht-resorbierbarer Faden), miteinander zu vergleichen.
Methoden: In einem Zeitraum von Juli 2018 bis April 2019 wurden Patienten mit geplanter de novo Herzschrittmacher-Implantation ohne Defibrillationstherapie prospektiv in die Studie eingeschlossen und anhand einer Randomisierungliste in zwei Probandengruppen eingeteilt: nicht-resorbierbares Nahtmaterial (Gruppe Prolene®) bzw. resorbierbares Nahtmaterial (Gruppe Monocryl®).
Ein Tag (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 1), sechs Wochen (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 2) und ein Jahr post-OP (Beobachtungszeitpunkt 3) erfolgte die Beurteilung der Narbe bezüglich des kosmetischen Ergebnisses und klinisch relevanter, unerwünschter Ereignisse. Zur kosmetischen Beurteilung diente die Wundbreite in mm, eine auftretende Kelloidbildung und die „Patient and Observer Scar Assessment Scale“ (POSA-Score). Dieser wurde zu Beobachtungszeitpunkt 1 seitens des Patienten auf zwei Fragen (Schmerzhaftigkeit, Juckreiz) reduziert. Die erhobenen klinisch relevanten Parameter waren Nachblutungen, Infektionen, Insuffizienz der Naht und Revisions-OP aufgrund eines Lokalbefundes.
Ergebnisse: Es konnten 114 Patienten in die Studie eingeschlossen werden. Zu Beobachtungszeitpunkt 2 und Beobachtungszeitpunkt 3 belief sich die Anzahl auf jeweils 92 Probanden. Zu allen drei Beobachtungszeitpunkten konnte zwischen beiden Gruppen weder ein signifikanter Unterschied im kosmetischen Ergebnis noch im Auftreten klinisch relevanter Ereignisse festgestellt werden.
Schlussfolgerung: Anhand der vorliegenden Studie scheint das verwendete Nahtmaterial keinen großen Einfluss auf das kosmetische Ergebnis der Narbe, sowie auf das Auftreten von unerwünschten Ereignissen zu haben. Eine multizentrische prospektiv randomisierte Studie mit größerer Patientenanzahl ist notwendig, um die hier erhobenen Daten zu verifizieren.
Bei der Analyse der Diffusion von Gallensäuren durch Lipiddoppelmembranen (SUV´s, LUVET´s) erweisen sich die lipophilen Gallensäuren als besonders diffusionsfreudig. Zu diesen können die LC, CDC und die DC gezählt werden. Die deutlich hydrophilere und therapeutisch bedeutende UDC permeiert ebenfalls durch Liposomenmembranen, hat jedoch eine geringere Geschwindigkeitskonstante. Konjugierte Gallensäuren zeigen dagegen nur eine minimale Diffusionsrate. Weiterhin wurde nachgewiesen, daß eine deutliche Abhängigkeit der Permeation von der Gallensäurenkonzentration besteht. Mit steigender Konzentration erhöht sich die Geschwindigkeit. Auch bei diesen Experimenten sind die lipophileren Substanzen die schnelleren. Zudem kann festgehalten werden, daß auch eine Temperaturerhöhung bis auf 37 °C und ein Abfall des pH- Wertes auf 5,4 einen positiven Einfluß auf die Permeabilitätsrate von Gallensäuren haben. Umgekehrt verhält es sich bei einer Temperaturminderung auf 10 °C und einer pH- Erhöhung auf 9,4. Eine gleichzeitige pH- Minderung und Temperaturerhöhung hat einen additiven Effekt auf die Diffusion. Geschwindigkeitssteigernd erweist sich auch die Verwendung größerer Liposomen. Eine Steigerung des Liposomendurchmessers geht mit einer Zunahme der Permeabilität einher. Auch die Zugabe von Ethanol bewirkt eine Zunahme der Diffusion durch Liposomenmembranen. Eine herabgesetzte Diffusionsrate kann bei Änderungen in der Lipidkomposition von Lipiddoppelmembranen beobachtet werden. Ein Einbau von Cholesterin führt eine deutliche Minderung der Permeation aller Gallensäuren herbei, wobei die lipophilen Gallensäuren auch weiterhin rascher permeieren. Ein Cholesteringehalt von 20% (w/w) wirkt dabei stärker hemmend als ein Gehalt von 10% (w/w). Im zweiten Abschnitt der vorliegenden Arbeit konzentrieren sich die Beobachtungen auf den Einfluß von Ethanol auf Lipiddoppelmembranen. Es kann gezeigt werden, daß Ethanol einen membrandestabilisierenden Effekt hat, der um so stärker ist, je höher die Ethanolkonzentration gewählt wird. Die DPH- Fluoreszenzversuche lassen zudem erkennen, daß Ethanol zu einer Reduktion der Membranordnung führt und damit zu einer Zunahme der Membranfluidität. Ein Einbau von UDC in die Liposomenmembran hat dagegen einen membran-stabilisierenden Effekt und reduziert die Ethanolwirkung. Dieser Effekt ist zu der Menge der in der Membran eingebauten UDC proportional. Der Cholesterineinbau in die Membran zeigt ähnliche Effekte wie der Einbau von UDC. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit liefern zusätzliche Erklärungen für Phänomene beim therapeutischen Einsatz von Gallensäuren, die bisher nur mangelhaft zu verstehen waren. So kann aus den Diffusionsstudien die Erkenntnis gewonnen werden, daß bei der Diffusion von mehr apolaren Gallensäuren, wie z.B. der CDC, eine leichtere Diffusion durch Membranen möglich ist als für die mehr polaren Moleküle. In der PBC sind vor allem die mehr apolaren Gallensäuren nachweisbar und stellen somit einen vielleicht wichtigen pathophysiologischen Faktor dar, der sich eventuell durch Einbau von Cholesterin in Membranen oder durch Applikation von UDC mindern läßt. UDC scheint jedoch auch gegen andere schädigende Substanzen eine protektive Wirkung zu haben. Ethanolinduzierte Schädigungen an Membranen konnten z.B. durch die Anwendung von UDC deutlich reduziert werden. Eine wenig geschädigte oder sogar intakte Membran kann ihren vielfältigen Funktionen gerecht werden, z.B. die Funktion von Transportsystemen aufrechterhalten. Dies könnte erklären, warum UDC bei primär biliären Leberkrankheiten eine Cholestase vermindert oder sogar aufheben kann, die heute weitgehend mit einer Schädigung membranständiger Carriersysteme erklärt wird.
Generally speaking, protein import into mitochondria and chloroplasts is a post-translational process during which the precursor proteins destined for mitochondria or chloroplasts are translated with cytosolic ribosomes and targeted. The previous results showed that the isolated chloroplasts can import in vitro synthesized proteins and the absence of ribosomes in the immediate area around chloroplasts in electron microscopy (EM) images. However, none of the EM images were recorded in the presence of a translation elongation inhibitor. Also, the observation showed that ribosomes stably bind to purified liver mitochondria in vitro, and the first indication of chloroplast localization of mRNAs encoding plastid proteins in Chlamydomonas rheinhardtii, which challenge the post-translational import and support the co-translational process. Therefore, in this study, the association of the ribosomes to the isolated chloroplasts were analyzed, a binding assay was established and showed that naked ribosomes are not considerably bound to chloroplasts. Additionally, mRNA localize in close vicinity to mitochondria also challenged post-translation protein import. Global analysis of transcripts bound to mitochondria in yeast or human revealed that around half of the transcripts of mitochondrial proteins displayed a high mitochondrial localization. The observed association of mRNAs with chloroplast fractions and the in vivo analysis of the distribution of mRNAs was used as base to formulate the hypothesis that mRNA can bind to chloroplast surface. Therefore, in this study, the mRNA binding assay was established and revealed that mRNAs coding for the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase copper chaperone COX17 showed unspecific binding to the chloroplasts. The mRNA coding for chloroplast outer envelope transport protein OEP24 and mRNA coding for the essential nuclear protein 1 (ENP1) showed specific binding, and OEP24 has a 3-fold higher affinity than ENP1 mRNA. Moreover, the BY2-L (Nicotiana tabacum non-green cell culture) could confer the highest enhancement of OEP24 mRNA binding efficiency than the COX17 and ENP1 mRNA and the preparation of the BY2-L was optimized. Afterwards, the feasibility to fix the interaction between mRNA and the proteins on the surface of chloroplasts was confirmed. OEP24 mRNA showed more efficiency in the UV-crosslinking. Following, the pull-down with antisense locked nucleic acid (LNA)/DNA oligonucleotides was established which could be used for the further investigation of the proteins involved in the mRNA binding to the chloroplasts.
Energy and environment are two major concerns in the 21st century. At present, the energy required for the daily life still mainly relies on the traditional fossil fuel resources, but the caused air pollution problem and greenhouse effect have seriously threatened the sustainable development of mankind. Another adopted energy source which can provide a large fraction of electricity for the world is the nuclear fission reaction. However, the increasing high-radioactive spent nuclear fuels, which half-lives are usually >1 million years, are becoming the hidden perils to the earth. A great advance in accelerator physics and technology opens an opportunity to solve this dilemma between man and nature, because powerful accelerator-based neutron sources can play important roles for clean nuclear power production, for example: - The Accelerator-Driven System (ADS) can serve as an easy control of a sub-critical fission reactor so that the nuclear fuels will be burnt more completely and safely. - The EUROTRANS project launched by EU is investigating another application of the ADS technology to reduce the radiotoxicity and the volume of the existing nuclear waste greatly and quickly in a transmutation way. - The developing international IFMIF plant will be used to test and qualify reactor materials for future fusion power stations, which can produce much cleaner nuclear electricity more efficiently than the fission ones. Therefore, the R&D of high-power driver linacs (HPDL) is of a worldwide importance. As the proverb said, "everything is hard at the beginning", the front end is the most difficult part for realizing an HPDL machine. Based on the RFQ and H-type DTL structures, this dissertation is dedicated to study the beam dynamics in the presence of significantly strong space-charge effects while accelerating intense hardon beams in the low- and medium-beta-region. Besides the 5mA/30mA, 17MeV proton injector (RFQ+DTL) and the 125mA, 40MeV deuteron DTL of the above-mentioned EUROTRANS and IFMIF facilities, a 200mA, 700keV proton RFQ has been also intensively studied for a small-scale but ultra-intense neutron source FRANZ planned at Frankfurt University. The most remarkable properties of the FRANZ RFQ and the IFMIF DTL are the design beam intensities, 200mA and 125mA, which are the record values for the proton and deuteron linacs, respectively. Though the design intensities for the two development stages, XT-ADS (5mA) and EFIT (30mA), of the EUROTRANS injector are well within the capability of the modern RF linac technology, the special design concept for an easy upgrade from XT-ADS to EFIT brings unusual challenges to realize a linac layout which allows flexible operation with different beam intensities. To design the 200mA FRANZ RFQ and the two-intensity EUROTRANS RFQ, the classic LANL (Los Alamos National Laboratory) Four-Section Procedure, which was developed by neglecting the space-charge forces, is not sufficient anymore. Abandoning the unreasonable constant- B (constant-transverse-focusing-strength) law and the resulting inefficient evolution manners of dynamics parameters adopted by the LANL method, a new design approach so-called "BABBLE", which can provide a "Balanced and Accelerated Beam Bunching at Low Energy", has been developed for intense beams. Being consistent with the beam-development process including space-charge effects, the main features of the "BABBLE" strategy (see Pages 55-58) are: 1) At the entrance, the synchronous phase is kept at = phi s = -90° while a gradual increase in the electrode modulation is started so that the input beam can firstly get a symmetrical and soft bunching within a full-360° phase acceptance. 2) In the following main bunching section, B is increasing to balance the stronger and stronger transverse defocusing effects induced by the decreasing bunch size so that the bunching speed can be fast and safely increased. 3) When the real acceleration starts, the quickly increased beam velocity will naturally weaken the transverse defocusing effects, so B is accordingly falling down to avoid longitudinal emittance growths and to allow larger bore apertures. Taking advantage of the gentle initial bunching and the accelerated main bunching under balanced forces enabled by the "BABBLE" strategy, a 2m-long RFQ with beam transmission in excess of 98% and low emittance growths has been designed for FRANZ, and a 4.3m-long RFQ with almost no beam losses and flat emittance evolutions at both 5mA and 30mA has been designed for EUROTRANS. All design results have proven that the "BABBLE" strategy is a general design approach leading to an efficient and robust RFQ with good beam quality in a wide intensity-range from 0mA to 200mA (even higher). To design the IFMIF DTL and the injector DTL part of the EUROTRANS driver linac, which have been foreseen as the first real applications of the novel superconducting CH-DTL structure, intensive attempts have been made to fulfill the design goals under the new conditions, e.g. long drift spaces, SC transverse focusing elements and high accelerating gradients. For the IFMIF DTL, the preliminary IAP design has been considerably improved with respect to the linac layout as well as the beam dynamics. By reserving sufficient drift spaces for the cryosystem, diagnostic devices, tuner and steerer, introducing SC solenoid lenses and adjusting the Linac Design for Intense Hadron Beams accelerating gradients and accordingly other configurations of the cavities (see Pages 78-80), a more realistic, reliable and efficient linac system has been designed. On the other hand, the specifications and positions of the transverse focusing elements (see Pages 81-82) as well as the phase- and energy-differences between the bunch-center particle and the synchronous particle at the beginning of the phi s=0° sections have been totally redesigned (see Pages 83-84) resulting in good beam performances in both radial and longitudinal planes. For the EUROTRANS injector DTL, in addition to the above-mentioned procedures, extra optimization concepts to coordinate the beam dynamics between two intensities, such as employing short adjustable rebunching cavities with phi s = -90° (see Page 116), have been applied. ...
Metabotropic glutamate receptor subtype 7 (mGluR7) belongs to the family of G-protein coupled receptors. mGluR7 is widely distributed in the brain and primarily localized at presynaptic terminals, where it is thought to regulate neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity. Studies have shown that the intracellular C-terminal tail of mGluR7 binds a variety of proteins in addition to trimeric G-proteins. These newly identified protein interactions are believed to play a key role in the synaptic targeting and G-protein dependent signaling of mGluR7. Protein interacting with C kinase 1 (PICK1), a PDZ-domain protein, is a strong interaction partner of mGluR7a. In order to investigate the role of PICK1 in the synaptic trafficking and signaling of mGluR7a, a knock-in mouse line in which the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 is disrupted was generated. Analysis of the mutant mice by immunocytochemistry and immunoelectron microscopy showed that the synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a was not altered, indicating that PICK1 is not required for mGluR7a receptor membrane trafficking and synaptic localization. However, when the spontaneous synaptic activity of cerebellar granule cell cultures prepared from both wild-type and knock-in mice was monitored, and L-AP4 (400μm) was found to decrease the frequency, but not the amplitude, of spontaneous excitatory currents in wild-type neurons, while no effect of L-AP4 on spontaneous synaptic activity was observed in knock-in neurons. This indicates that PICK1 binding to the C-terminal region of mGluR7a plays an essential role in mGluR7a mediated G-protein signaling. We examined the threshold sensitivity for the convulsant pentetrazole (PTZ) in knock-in mice. It was found that mGluR7a knock-in mice had a greater sensitivity to PTZ than wild-type mice. Moreover, the surface parietal cortex EEG recordings of the mutant mice revealed spontaneous synchronous oscillation, or "spike-and-wave discharges" (SWD), which displayed similar characteristics to absence-like seizures. It was also observed that the knock-in mice responded to pharmacology as human absence epilepsy. These data suggests that the knock-in mice displayed the phenotype of absencelike epilepsy. Furthermore, the behavioral analysis of the mGluR7a knock-in mice showed no deficits in motor coordination, pain sensation, anxiety as well as spatial learning and memory, thus the interaction of mGluR7a and PICK1 appears not to contribute to these physiological processes. Taken together, our data provides evidence for an important role of PICK1 in Gprotein dependent signaling of mGluR7a, whereas PICK1 is not required for synaptic targeting and clustering of mGluR7a. Our results also provide an animal model of absencelike epilepsy generated by disruption of a single mGluR7a-PDZ interaction, thus creating a novel therapeutic target against this neurological disease.
This work presents a biochemical, functional and structural characterization of Aquifex aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase obtained using both a native form (AAF1FO) and a heterologous form (EAF1FO) of this enzyme.
F1FO ATP synthases catalyze the synthesis of ATP from ADP and inorganic phosphate driven by ion motive forces across the membrane and therefore play a key cellular function. Because of their central role in supporting life, F1FO ATP synthases are ubiquitous and have been remarkably conserved throughout evolution. For their biological importance, F1FO ATP synthases have been extensively studied for many decades and many of them were characterized from both a functional and a structural standpoint. However, important properties of ATP synthases – specifically properties pertaining to their membrane embedded subunits – have yet to be determined and no structures are available to date for the intact enzyme complex. Therefore, F1FO ATP synthases are still a major focus of research worldwide. Our research group had previously reported an initial characterization of AAF1FO and had indicated that this enzyme presents unique features, i.e. a bent central stalk and a putatively heterodimeric peripheral stalk. Based on such a characterization, this enzyme revealed promising for structural and functional studies on ATP synthases and became the focus of this doctoral thesis. Two different lines of research were followed in this work.
First, the characterization of AAF1FO was extended by bioinformatic, biochemical and enzymatic analyses. The work on AAF1FO led to the identification of a new detergent that maintains a higher homogeneity and integrity of the complex, namely the detergent trans-4-(trans-4’-propylcyclohexyl)cyclohexyl-α-D-maltoside (α-PCC). The characterization of AAF1FO in this new detergent showed that AAF1FO is a proton-dependent, not a sodium ion-dependent ATP synthase and that its ATP hydrolysis mechanism needs to be triggered and activated by high temperatures, possibly inducing a conformational switch in subunit γ. Moreover, this approach suggested that AAF1FO may present unusual features in its membrane subunits, i.e. short N-terminal segments in subunits a and c with implications for the membrane insertion mechanism of these subunits.
Investigating on these unique features of A. aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase could not be done using A. aeolicus cells, because these require a harsh and dangerous environment for growth and they are inaccessible to genetic manipulations. Therefore, a second approach was pursued, in which an expression system was created to produce the enzyme in the heterologous host E. coli. This second approach was experimentally challenging, because A. aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase is a 500-kDa multimeric membrane enzyme with a complicated and still not entirely determined stoichiometry and because its encoding genes are scattered throughout A. aeolicus genome, rather than being organized in one single operon. However, an artificial operon suitable for expression was created in this work and led to the successful production of an active and fully assembled form of Aquifex aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase. Such artificial operon was created using a stepwise approach, in which we expressed and studied first individual subunits, then subcomplexes, and finally the entire F1FO ATP synthase complex. We confirmed experimentally that subunits b1 and b2 form a heterodimeric subcomplex in the E. coli membranes, which is a unique case among ATP synthases of non-photosynthetic organisms. Moreover, we determined that the b1b2 subcomplex is sufficient to recruit the soluble F1 subcomplex to the membranes, without requiring the presence of the other membrane subunits a and c. The latter subunits can be produced in our expression system only when the whole ATP synthase is expressed, but not in isolation nor in the context of smaller FO subcomplexes. These observations led us to propose a novel mechanism for the assembly of ATP synthases, in which first the F1 subcomplex attaches to the membrane via subunit b1b2, and then cring and subunits a assemble to complete the FO subcomplex. Furthermore, we could purify the heterologous ATP synthase (EAF1FO) to homogeneity by chromatography and electro-elution. Enzymatic assays showed that the purified form of EAF1FO is as active as AAF1FO. Peptide mass fingerprinting showed that EAF1FO is composed of the same subunits as AAF1FO and all soluble and membrane subunits could be identified. Finally, single-particle electron microscopy analysis revealed that the structure of EAF1FO is identical to that of AAF1FO. Therefore, the EAF1FO expression system serves as a reliable platform for investigating on properties of AAF1FO.
Specifically, in this work, EAF1FO was used to study the membrane insertion mechanism of rotary subunit c. Subunits c possess different lengths and levels of hydrophobicity across species and by analyzing their N-terminal variability, four phylogenetic groups of subunits c were distinguished (groups 1 to 4). As a member of group 2, the subunit c from A. aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase is characterized by an N-terminal segment that functions as a signal peptide with SRP recognition features, a unique case for bacterial F1FO ATP synthases. By accurately designing mutants of EAF1FO, we determined that such a signal peptide is strictly necessary for membrane insertion of subunit c and we concluded that A. aeolicus subunit c inserts into E. coli membranes using a different pathway than E. coli subunit c. Such a property may be common to other ATP synthases from extremophilic organisms, which all cluster in the same phylogenetic group.
In conclusion, the successful production of the fully assembled and active F1FO ATP synthase from A. aeolicus in E. coli reported in this work provides a novel genetic system to study A. aeolicus F1FO ATP synthase. To a broader extent, it will also serve in the future as a solid reference for designing strategies aimed at producing large multi-subunit complexes with complicated stoichiometry.
In the past sixty years, excessive water consumption and dam construction have significantly influenced natural flow regimes and surface freshwater ecosystems throughout China, and thus resulted in serious environmental problems. In order to balance the competing water demands between human and environment and provide knowledge on sustainable water management, assessments on anthropogenic flow alterations and their impacts on aquatic and riparian ecosystems in China are needed.
In this study, the first evaluation on quantitative relationships between anthropogenic flow alterations and ecological responses in eleven river basins and watersheds in China was performed based on the data that could be obtained from published case studies. Quantitative relationships between changes in average annual discharge, seasonal low flow and seasonal high flow and changes in ecological indicators (fish diversity, fish catch and vegetation cover, etc.) were analyzed. The results showed that changes in riparian vegetation cover as well as changes in fish diversity and fish catch were strongly correlated with the changes in flow magnitude (r = 0.77, 0.66), especially with changes in average annual river discharge. In addition, more than half of the variations in vegetation cover could be explained by changes in average annual river discharge (r² = 0.63) and roughly 50 % changes in fish catch in arid and semi-arid region and 60% changes of fish catch in humid region could be related to alterations in average annual river discharge (r² = 0.53, 0.58).
In a supplementary analysis of this study, the first estimation on quantitative relationships between decreases in native fish species richness and anthropogenic flow alterations in 34 river basins and sub-basins in China was conducted. Linear relationships between losses of native fish species and five ecologically relevant flow indicators were analyzed by single and multiple regression models. For the single regression analysis, significant linear relationships were detected for the indicators of long-term average annual discharge (ILTA) and statistical low flow Q90 (IQ90). For the multiple regressions, no indicator other than ILTA has significant relationships with changes in number of fish species mainly due to collinearity. Two conclusions emerged from the analysis: 1) losses of fish species were positively correlated with changes in ILTA in China and 2) indicator of ILTA was dominant over other flow indicators included in this research for the given dataset. These results provide a guideline for the sustainable water resources management in rivers with high risk of fish extinction in China.
In the present study the cryo-immunogold technique was used and optimized for investigating the ultrastructure and immunolabeling of synaptic proteins. It is evidently a suitable method for the localization of membrane proteins since the antigens are not treated with any chemical denaturation before immunolabeling except for the fixation and since the antigens are directly exposed to the surface of the cryo-ultrasections. The v-SNARE VAMP II and the vesicle-associated proteins SV2 and Rab3A were detected extensively at small vesicles in the mossy fiber terminals. The t-SNARE SNAP-25, and N-type and P/Q type Ca2+ channels were allocated to the plasma membrane both at the active zone and outside the active zone. SNAP-25 and N-type Ca2+ channels appeared also at synaptic vesicles. A significantly increased immunolabeling of VAMP II, SV2, Rab3A, SNAP-25 and N-type Ca2+ channels was found at the active zones of fast synapses, indicating a concentration of these proteins at sites of exocytosis. The widespread distribution of the t-SNARE SNAP-25 at the axonal plasma membrane reveals that membrane-targeting specificity cannot be determined solely by v/t-SNARE interactions. Additional control components are required to assure the docking and exocytosis of the synaptic vesicles at active zones. The novel protein Bassoon was only found at active zones of central synapses and showed the highest specific labeling among all proteins investigated. Its labeling pattern implies an association of Bassoon with the presynaptic dense projections, the structural guide for vesicle exocytosis. The involvement of Bassoon in the organization of the neurotransmitter release site suggests that Bassoon may play an important role in determining the specificity of vesicle docking and fusion. In the neurosecretory endings of neurohypophysis the synaptic proteins VAMP II, SNAP- 25, SV2, Rab3A, and the N-type Ca2+ channels showed a preferential labeling over microvesicles. Moreover, the immunolabeling intensity of these proteins over microvesicles corresponded closely to that over synaptic vesicles. This suggests that these synaptic proteins share an identical association with synaptic vesicle and microvesicles. A significant labeling of SNAP-25, the N-type Ca2+ channels and VAMP II was also detected at the plasma membrane near the clustered microvesicles, indicating the competence of microvesicles for docking and exocytosis along the plasma membrane in the absence of active zones. No significant labeling of VAMP II, SNAP-25, SV2 and N-type Ca2+ channel was observed at the membrane of neurosecretory granules. This is in agreement with the notion that synaptic vesicles and microvesicles possess regulatory mechanisms for exocytosis different from those of granules. In contrast, a/ß-SNAP and NSF were found on the granules, and Rab3A and the P/Q-type Ca2+ channels on granules in a subset of terminals. Rab3A is associated specifically with the oxytocin-containing granule population. Interestingly, some plasma membrane proteins, such as SNAP-25 and even N-type Ca2+ channels and P/Q-type Ca2+ channels, were observed not only at the plasma membrane but also at the vesicular organelles. This suggests that these vesicular organelles may be involved in transporting newly synthesized proteins from the soma to the plasma membrane of the terminal. Furthermore, the vesicular pool of the Ca2+ channels may serve in the stimulationinduced translocation into the plasma membrane when required. Using the conventional preembedding method with Epon and the post-embedding method with LR Gold, VAMP II was localized at vesicular organelles of varying size and on horseradish peroxidase filled endocytic organelles in cultured astrocytes, with and without stimulation in the presence of the horseradish peroxidase. This indicates that VAMP II is involved in the cycle of vesicular exocytosis and endocytosis in astrocytes. U373 cells are capable of expressing all three members of the synaptic SNARE complex (v-SNARE VAMP II, t-SNARE syntaxin I and SNAP25). This indicates the competence of U373 to carry out regulated exocytosis by means of the classical SNARE mechanism. In addition, the ubiquitous v-SNARE cellubrevin and the endosome-associated small GTPbinding protein Rab5 could be expressed in U373 cells. All recombinant synaptic proteins investigated in U373 cells revealed a punctuate cellular distribution under the fluorescence microscope, suggesting that they are mainly associated with intracellular compartments. The cryo-electron microscopy provided direct evidence for the association of all expressed proteins with electron-lucent vesicular organelles. It further supports the potential of U373 MG cells to release low molecular weight messengers by a regulated exocytosis mechanism. In addition, myc-VAMP II was found on dispersed granules. Probably, VAMP II also participates in the exocytosis event of granules in U373 cells. Gold labeling for the two presumptive t-SNAREs syntaxin I and SNAP-25 in U373 cells was confined to the vesicular organelles. At the ultrastructural level no significant labeling was identified at the plasma membrane. The high level of colocalization of the two SNARE proteins VAMP II and syntaxin I in the cell body and in cell processes suggests that the two proteins are mostly sorted into identical vesicular organelles. A partial colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin as well as of VAMP II and Rab5 was observed under the fluorescence microscope. At the ultrastructural level, a colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin as well as of VAMP II and Rab5 was found on some clustered vesicles. The partial colocalization of VAMP II and cellubrevin implies that they similarly function as v-SNAREs. The partial colocalization of Rab5 with VAMP II in U373 cells suggests that the endosomal protein Rab5 is associated with VAMP II-containing organelles during some stages of their life cycle.