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Das Steroid-Hormon 17ß-Estradiol ist maßgeblich an der Entstehung und Entwicklung von Brustkrebs beteiligt. Die intrazelluläre Verfügbarkeit des aktiven Estrogens, 17ß-Estradiol, wird durch die 17ßHydroxysteroiddehydrogenase (17ßHSDl) reguliert, die die NADPH-abhängige Reduktion von Estron zu Estradiol katalysiert. Damit stellt die 17ßHSD1 einen interessanten Ansatzpunkt für die Entwicklung neuer Inhibitoren im Hinblick auf potente Wirkstoffe gegen Brustkrebs dar. Die 17ß-Hydroxysteroiddehydrogenase 2 bevorzugt hingegen die oxidative Aktivität und wandelt die biologisch aktiven Hydroxysteroide wie Estradiol in ihre inaktiven Ketoformen um. Ein möglicher Inhibitor der 17ß-HSD1 sollte demnach die Funktion der 17ß-HSD2 nicht beeinträchtigen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden Strategien und Methoden entwickelt, die 17ßHSD1 durch heterologe Expression erstmals in E. coli darzustellen. Durch NMR-Spektroskopie in Kombination mit Docking konnten detaillierte Aussagen über die Bindungsepitope der untersuchten Liganden gemacht werden. Diese Informationen sind für eine gerichtete Optimierung von Leitstrukturen von großer Bedeutung.
The following thesis is concerned with the elucidation of structural changes of RNA molecules during the time course of dynamic processes that are commonly denoted as folding reactions. In contrast to the field of protein folding, the concept of RNA folding comprises not only folding reactions itself but also refolding- or conformational switching- and assembly processes (see chapter III). The method in this thesis to monitor these diverse processes is high resolution liquid-state NMR spectroscopy. To understand the reactions is of considerable interest, because most biological active RNA molecules function by changing their conformation. This can be either an intrinsic property of their respective sequence or may happen in response to a cellular signal such as small molecular ligand binding (like in the aptamer and riboswitch case), protein or metal binding. The first part of the thesis (chapters II & III) provides a general overview over the field of RNA structure and RNA folding. The two chapters aim at introducing the reader into the current status of research in the field. Chapters II is structured such that primary structure is first described then secondary and tertiary structure elements of RNA structure. A special emphasis is given to bistable RNA systems that are functionally important and represent models to understand fundamental questions of RNA conformational switching. RNA folding in vitro as well as in vivo situations is discussed in Chapter III. The following chapters IV and V also belong to the introduction part and review critically the NMR methods that were used to understand the nature and the dynamics of the conformational/structural transitions in RNA. A general overview of NMR methods quantifying dynamics of biomolecules is provided in chapter IV. A detailed discussion of solvent exchange rates and time-resolved NMR, as the two major techniques used, follows. In the final chapter V of the first part the NMR parameters used in structure calculation and structure calculation itself are conferred. The second part of the thesis, which is the cumulative part, encompasses the conducted original work. Chapter VI reviews the general NMR techniques applied and explains their applicability in the field of RNA structural and biochemical studies in several model cases. Chapter VII describes the achievement of a complete resonance assignment of an RNA model molecule (14mer cUUCGg tetral-loop RNA) and introduces a new technique to assign quaternary carbon resonances of the nucleobases. Furthermore, it reports on a conformational analysis of the sugar backbone in this RNA hairpin molecule in conjunction with a parameterization of 1J scalar couplings. Achievements: • Establishment of two new NMR pulse-sequences facilitating the assignment of quaternary carbons in RNA nucleobases • First complete (99.5%) NMR resonance assignment of an RNA molecule (14mer) including 1H, 13C, 15N, 31P resonances • Description of RNA backbone conformation by a complete set of NMR parameters • Description of the backbone conformational dependence in RNA of new NMR parameters (1J scalar couplings) Chapters VII & VIII summarize the real-NMR studies that were conducted to elucidate the conformational switching events of several RNA systems. Chapter VIII gives an overview on the experiments that were accomplished on three different bistable RNAs. These molecules where chosen to be good model systems for RNA refolding reactions and so consequently served as reporters of conformational switching events of RNA secondary structure elements. Achievements: • First kinetic studies of RNA refolding reactions with atomic resolution by NMR • Application of [new] RT-NMR techniques either regarding the photolytic initiation of the reaction or regarding the readout of the reaction • Discovery of different RNA refolding mechanisms for different RNA molecules Deciphering of a general rule for RNA refolding methodology to conformational switching processes of RNA tertiary structure elements. The models for these processes were a) the guanine-dependent riboswitch RNA and b) the minimal hammerhead ribozyme. Achievements: • NMR spectroscopic assignment of imino-resonances of the hypoxanthine bound guanine-dependent riboswitch RNA • Application of RT-NMR techniques to monitor the ligand induced conformational switch of the aptamer domain of the guanine-dependent riboswitch RNA at atomic resolution • Translation of kinetic information into structural information • Deciphering a folding mechanism for the guanine riboswitch aptamer domain • Application of RT-NMR techniques to monitor the reaction of the catalytically active mHHR RNA at atomic resolution In the appendices the new NMR pulse-sequences and the experimental parameters are described, which are not explicitly treated in the respective manuscripts.
The formation and maintenance of a defined three-dimensional structure is a prerequisite for most proteins in order to fulfill their function in the native context. However, there are proteins, which are intrinsically unstructured and thus natively unfolded. In addition, the misfolding and aggregation of many proteins can lead to severe diseases. The investigation of non-native states of proteins significantly contributes to the understanding of protein folding and misfolding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the only known technique that can provide information on structure and dynamics of non-native states of proteins at atomic resolution. Unfolded and non-native states of proteins have to be treated as ensembles of rapidly interconverting conformers and their observed properties are ensemble and time averaged. In this thesis, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and mutants thereof have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The reduction of its four disulfide bridges and the successive methylation of the cysteine residues renders HEWL permanently non-native (‘HEWL-SMe’). Alternatively, the exchange of the eight cysteines for alanines results in very similar states (‘all-Ala-HEWL’). Under these conditions, HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL do not resemble random coil conformations, but exhibit residual secondary and tertiary structure. The presence of hydrophobic clusters and long-range interactions around the proteins six tryptophan residues and the modulation of these properties by single-point mutants has been observed. For the NMR spectroscopic investigation, HEWL has been isotopically labelled in E. coli by expression into inclusion bodies. After purification, the 1HN, 15NH, 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, 13C’, 1Halpha and 1Hbeta resonances of HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL have been assigned almost completely using three-dimensional NMR experiments. The analysis of secondary chemical shifts revealed regions in the proteins sequence — particularly around the six tryptophan residues—with significantly populated alpha-helix like conformations. In order to further elucidate the influence of the tryptophan side chains, a set of two new pulse sequences has been developed that allowed for the successful assignment of the 13Cg, 15Ne and 1HNe resonances in these side chains. This knowledge was eventually exploited in the interpretation of two-dimensional 15N-1H photo-CIDNP spectra, which revealed a differential solvent accessibility of the tryptophan residues in all-Ala-HEWL but not in the single point mutant W62G-all-Ala-HEWL. In addition, heteronuclear R2 relaxation rates have been determined for the indole 15Ne nuclei of all-Ala-HEWL and W62G. While in the wild-type like all-Ala-HEWL, the rates are different among the six tryptophan residues, in W62G they are more uniform. Together with relaxation data from the amide backbone, these results indicate the significant destabilization of the hydrophobic clusters in the absence of W62. In contrast, in the W108G mutant the profile of the R2 relaxation rates was not found to be significantly altered. No evidence was found by R1rho relaxation rates and relaxation dispersion measurements for conformational exchange on slower (micro- to millisecond) timescales. Residual dipolar couplings have been determined for non-native HEWL in order to retrieve structural information of these states. The differences of the W62G and the wild-type like non-native HEWL is also picked up in NH-RDCs of these proteins aligned in polyacrylamide gels. Significant positive RDCs are observed in the regions of the hydrophobic clusters in all-Ala-HEWL, but to a much lesser degree in W62G. So far, all attempts to simulate RDCs from generated non-native ensembles failed even when including long-range contacts or specific phi/psi backbone angle propensities. However, the measured RDCs can be used to cross-validate structural ensembles of non-native HEWL generated by molecular dynamics simulations that are based on restraints from the other experimental data, such as the differential solvent accessibilities from the photo-CIDNP experiments and the data on the hydrophobic clustering gained from the combined mutational and relaxation studies. Finally, non-native HEWL has been investigated for the first time using two-dimensional NMR in organic solvents, which are able to induce secondary structures and ultimately lead to amyloid formation. Under these conditions severe line broadening was observed, which was attributed to exchange between different — mostly a-helical— conformations. In summary, in this thesis methods have been developed, optimized and successfully applied for the structural and dynamical characterization of non-native states of proteins and the effect of single-point mutants on the properties of such ensembles has been investigated. Data has been gained that can considerably contribute to the further elucidation of the nature of non-native states of HEWL by molecular dynamics simulations.