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In recent decades, mass spectrometry has moved more than ever before into the front line of protein-centered research. After being established at the qualitative level, the more challenging question of quantification of proteins and peptides using mass spectrometry has become a focus for further development. In this chapter, we discuss and review actual strategies and problems of the methods for the quantitative analysis of peptides, proteins, and finally proteomes by mass spectrometry. The common themes, the differences, and the potential pitfalls of the main approaches are presented in order to provide a survey of the emerging field of quantitative, mass spectrometry-based proteomics.
The ancestral SARS-CoV-2 strain that initiated the Covid-19 pandemic at the end of 2019 has rapidly mutated into multiple variants of concern with variable pathogenicity and increasing immune escape strategies. However, differences in host cellular antiviral responses upon infection with SARS-CoV-2 variants remain elusive. Leveraging whole-cell proteomics, we determined host signaling pathways that are differentially modulated upon infection with the clinical isolates of the ancestral SARS-CoV-2 B.1 and the variants of concern Delta and Omicron BA.1. Our findings illustrate alterations in the global host proteome landscape upon infection with SARS-CoV-2 variants and the resulting host immune responses. Additionally, viral proteome kinetics reveal declining levels of viral protein expression during Omicron BA.1 infection when compared to ancestral B.1 and Delta variants, consistent with its reduced replication rates. Moreover, molecular assays reveal deferral activation of specific host antiviral signaling upon Omicron BA.1 and BA.2 infections. Our study provides an overview of host proteome profile of multiple SARS-CoV-2 variants and brings forth a better understanding of the instigation of key immune signaling pathways causative for the differential pathogenicity of SARS-CoV-2 variants.
The measurement of protein dynamics by proteomics to study cell remodeling has seen increased attention over the last years. This development is largely driven by a number of technological advances in proteomics methods. Pulsed stable isotope labeling in cell culture (SILAC) combined with tandem mass tag (TMT) labeling has evolved as a gold standard for profiling protein synthesis and degradation. While the experimental setup is similar to typical proteomics experiments, the data analysis proves more difficult: After peptide identification through search engines, data extraction requires either custom scripted pipelines or tedious manual table manipulations to extract the TMT-labeled heavy and light peaks of interest. To overcome this limitation, which deters researchers from using protein dynamic proteomics, we developed a user-friendly, browser-based application that allows easy and reproducible data analysis without the need for scripting experience. In addition, we provide a python package that can be implemented in established data analysis pipelines. We anticipate that this tool will ease data analysis and spark further research aimed at monitoring protein translation and degradation by proteomics.
Regulatory required, classical toxicity studies for environmental hazard assessment are costly, time consuming, and often lack mechanistic insights about the toxic mode of action induced through a compound. In addition, classical toxicological non-human animal tests raise serious ethical concerns and are not well suited for high throughput screening approaches. Molecular biomarker-based screenings could be a suitable alternative for identifying particular hazardous effects (e.g. endocrine disruption, developmental neurotoxicity) in non-target organisms at the molecular level. This, however, requires a better mechanistic understanding of different toxic modes of action (MoA) to describe characteristic molecular key events and respective markers.
Ecotoxicgenomics, which uses modern day omic technologies and systems biology approaches to study toxicological responses at the molecular level, are a promising new way for elucidating
the processes through which chemicals cause adverse effects in environmental organisms. In this context, this PhD study was designated to investigate and describe MoA-characteristic
ecotoxicogenomic signatures in three ecotoxicologically important aquatic model organisms of different trophic levels (Danio rerio, Daphnia magna and Lemna minor).
Applying non-target transcriptomic and proteomic methodologies post chemical exposure, the aim was to identify robust functional profiles and reliable biomarker candidates with potential
predictive properties to allow for a differentiation among different MoA in these organisms. For the sublethal exposure studies in the zebrafish embryo model (96 hpf), the acute fish embryo toxicity test guideline (OECD 236) was used as conceptual framework. As different test compounds with known MoA, the thyroid hormone 3,3′,5-triiodothyronine (T3) and the thyrostatic 6-propyl-2-thiouracil (6-PTU), as well as six nerve- and muscle-targeting insecticides (abamectin, carbaryl, chlorpyrifos, fipronil, imidacloprid and methoxychlor) were evaluated. Furthermore, a novel sublethal immune challenge assay in early zebrafish embryos (48 hpf) was evaluated for its potential to assess immuno-suppressive effects at the gene expression level. Therefore, toxicogenomic profiles after an immune response inducing stimulus with and without prior clobetasol propionate (CP) treatment were compared. For the aquatic invertebrate D. magna, the study was performed with previously determined low effect concentrations (EC5 & EC20) of fipronil and imidacloprid according to the acute immobilization test in water flea (OECD 202). The aim was to compare toxicogenomic signatures of the GABA-gated chloride channel blocker (fipronil) and the nAChR agonist (imidacloprid). With similar low effect concentrations, a shortened 3 day version of the growth inhibition test with L. minor (OECD 221) was conducted to find molecular profiles differentiating between photosynthesis and HMG-CoA reductase inhibitory effects. Here, the biological interpretation of the molecular stress response profiles in L. minor due to the lack of functional annotation of the reference genome was particularly challenging. Therefore, an annotation workflow was developed based on protein sequence homology predicted from the genomic reference sequences.
With this PhD work, it was shown how transcriptomic, proteomic and computational systems biology approaches can be coupled with aquatic toxicological tests, to gain important mechanistic insights into adverse effects at the molecular level. In general, for the different investigated adverse effects for the different organisms, biomarker candidates were identified, which describe a potential functional link between impaired gene expressions and previously reported apical effects. For the assessed chemicals in the zebrafish embryo model, biomarker candidates for thyroid disruption as well as developmental toxicity targeting the heart and central nervous system were described. The biomarkers derived from nerve- and muscletargeting insecticides were associated with three major affected processes: (1) cardiac muscle cell development and functioning, (2) oxygen transport and hypoxic stress and (3) neuronal development and plasticity. To our knowledge, this is the first study linking neurotoxic insecticide exposure and affected expression of important regulatory genes for heart muscle (tcap, actc2) and forebrain (npas4a) development in a vertebrate model. The proposed immunosuppression assay found CP to affect innate immune induction by attenuating the response of genes involved in antigen processing, TLR signalling, NF-КB signalling, and complement activation ...
Nucleoredoxin is a thioredoxin-like redoxin that has been recognized as redox modulator of WNT signaling. Using a Yeast-2-Hybrid screen, we identified calcium calmodulin kinase 2a, Camk2a, as a prominent prey in a brain library. Camk2a is crucial for nitric oxide dependent processes of neuronal plasticity of learning and memory. Therefore, the present study assessed functions of NXN in neuronal Nestin-NXN-/- deficient mice. The NXN-Camk2a interaction was confirmed by coimmunoprecipitation, and by colocalization in neuropil and dendritic spines. Functionally, Camk2a activity was reduced in NXN deficient neurons and restored with recombinant NXN. Proteomics revealed reduced oxidation in the hippocampus of Nestin-NXN-/- deficient mice, including Camk2a, further synaptic and mitochondrial proteins, and was associated with a reduction of mitochondrial respiration. Nestin-NXN-/- mice were healthy and behaved normally in behavioral tests of anxiety, activity and sociability. They had no cognitive deficits in touchscreen based learning & memory tasks, but omitted more trials showing a lower interest in the reward. They also engaged less in rewarding voluntary wheel running, and in exploratory behavior in IntelliCages. Accuracy was enhanced owing to the loss of exploration. The data suggested that NXN maintained the oxidative state of Camk2a and thereby its activity. In addition, it supported oxidation of other synaptic and mitochondrial proteins, and mitochondrial respiration. The loss of NXN-dependent pro-oxidative functions manifested in a loss of exploratory drive and reduced interest in reward in behaving mice.
Glioblastoma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor. To date, clinically relevant biomarkers are restricted to isocitrate dehydrogenase (IDH) gene 1 or 2 mutations and O6-methylguanine DNA methyltransferase (MGMT) promoter methylation. Long non-coding RNAs (lncRNAs) have been shown to contribute to glioblastoma pathogenesis and could potentially serve as novel biomarkers. The clinical significance of HOXA Transcript Antisense RNA, Myeloid-Specific 1 (HOTAIRM1) was determined by analyzing HOTAIRM1 in multiple glioblastoma gene expression data sets for associations with prognosis, as well as, IDH mutation and MGMT promoter methylation status. Finally, the role of HOTAIRM1 in glioblastoma biology and radiotherapy resistance was characterized in vitro and in vivo. We identified HOTAIRM1 as a candidate lncRNA whose up-regulation is significantly associated with shorter survival of glioblastoma patients, independent from IDH mutation and MGMT promoter methylation. Glioblastoma cell line models uniformly showed reduced cell viability, decreased invasive growth and diminished colony formation capacity upon HOTAIRM1 down-regulation. Integrated proteogenomic analyses revealed impaired mitochondrial function and determination of reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels confirmed increased ROS levels upon HOTAIRM1 knock-down. HOTAIRM1 knock-down decreased expression of transglutaminase 2 (TGM2), a candidate protein implicated in mitochondrial function, and knock-down of TGM2 mimicked the phenotype of HOTAIRM1 down-regulation in glioblastoma cells. Moreover, HOTAIRM1 modulates radiosensitivity of glioblastoma cells both in vitro and in vivo. Our data support a role for HOTAIRM1 as a driver of biological aggressiveness, radioresistance and poor outcome in glioblastoma. Targeting HOTAIRM1 may be a promising new therapeutic approach.
Im Forschungsgebiet der Proteomik hat sich die Massenspektrometrie als essenzielles Werkzeug etabliert. Zur Probengewinnung und deren Präparation für die chromatogra-phische Trennung und massenspektrometrische Analyse existieren eine Vielzahl von Protokollen, deren Verwendung jedoch unterschiedlichste Vor- und Nachteile mitbringt. Im Idealfall wäre ein solches Protokoll schnell und kostengünstig durchführbar, würde mit hoher Robustheit die Proteine aus den Ausgangszellmaterial quantitativ extrahieren und Probenverluste auf ein Minimum beschränken. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, in einem strukturierten Ansatz sich diesem Ideal zu nähern und mögliche Kompatibilitaten mit anderen Methoden wie dem Arg-C analogen Proteinverdau zu untersuchen. Als Maß-stäbe dienen hierbei die aktuellen Standardprotokolle: die Acetonfällung der Proteine mit anschließender Solublisieung und das FASP-Protokoll, bei dem die zur Proteinpro-zessierung notwendigen Arbeitsschritte auf einer Größenausschlussmembran stattfinden. Dazu wurde zunächst das Adsorptionsverhalten von Proteinen auf den Silica-Oberflächen paramagnetischer Beads untersucht und dabei insbesondere der Einfluss von Chemikalien zur Zell-Lyse und den im Anschluss verwendeten Reduktions- und Alkylierungsreagenzien analysiert. Dabei wurde festgestellt, dass die Proteine aus dem Totalzelllysat sehr effektiv an die Silicaoberfläche binden und dass der Prozess der Re-duktion von Disulfidbrücken mit nachfolgender Carbamidomethylierung positiv zur Adsorption beiträgt und negative Einflüsse auf die Immobilisierung negieren kann. Dar-aus wurde ein Protokoll zur kombinierten Lyse, Aufreinigung, Modifikation und Proteo-lyse (abgekürzt: ABP) entwickelt. Parallel dazu konnte die Kompatibilität des Protokolls mit dem ArgC-analogen Verdau gezeigt werden und in der Folge konnte die Komple-mentarität der Methoden erfolgreich getestet werden. Mit frischen Zell-Lysaten wurde der Einfluss der Lysisreagentien unter Einschluss einer kommerziellen Variante ("Bug-buster" Lysis-Puffer) bestimmt und Harnstoff konnte als Mittel der Wahl definiert wer-den, da mit diesem höhere Identifikationszahlen erreicht wurden, lipophile Proteine vermehrt in der Probe erhalten blieben und größere Ionscores ermittelt werden konnten. Das Potential von ABP wurde im Direktvergleich mit FASP und dem Verdau in Lösung anhand eines humanen Proteoms genauestens untersucht, wobei eine konsequente Ver-besserung gegenüber beiden Methoden festgestellt werden konnte, insbesondere im Hinblick auf Praktikabilität und die Zahl der erforderlichen Arbeitsschritte, Reprodu-zierbarkeit und Zahl der identifizierten Peptide. Ein Bias des ABP zugunsten spezieller Proteineigenschaften konnte nach ausführlicher Analyse der identifizierten Proteine und Peptide nicht festgestellt werden. Eine vermehrt auftretende Oxidation von Methionin wurde identifiziert, allerdings zeigten sich keine negativen Auswirkungen auf die Pro-teinidentifizierungen. Zur Unterdrückung potentieller und unerwünschter Nebenpro-dukte in Form von Methylierungen, die als Folge des ursprünglichen ArgC-analogen Verdaus36 auftreten, wurde mit Verwendung von Acetonitril eine Alternative erfolg-reich getestet. Ein humanes Proteom wurde mittels des formulierten Protokolls sowohl tryptisch als auch mit ArgC-analogen Verdau (mit Acetonitril bzw. Methanol) analysiert. In diesem Zusammenhang wurde die Vollständigkeit der Modifikation der Lysine unter Verwendung von ACN mit zufriedenstellenden 99% bestätigt und die unerwünschte Carbamylierung der Aminosäure durch Harnstoff als Lysisreagenz konnte ausgeschlos-sen werden. Beide Ansätze zum ArgC-analogen Verdau erwiesen sich zudem gegenüber der tryptischen Variante als überlegen, was sich in einer Erhöhung der Identifikations-zahlen des humanen Proteoms widerspiegelt. Insbesondere wenig abundante Proteine, Histone und membranassoziierte Proteine bildeten den Großteil der zusätzlich identifi-zierten Proteine. Zusätzlich konnte eine günstigeres Fragmentierungsverhalten beobach-tet werden. Die effektiven Grenzen des ABP im Hinblick auf die erforderliche Protein-menge wurden untersucht und beschrieben. Der zu erwartende Zusammenhang zwi-schen abnehmender Proteinmenge und Identifikationszahlen niedrig abundanter Protei-ne wurde bestätigt und ein effektiver Grenzwert von 5µg Ausgangsmenge humanen Proteoms ermittelt. Abschließend wurden Dauer und Aufwand der Probenvorbereitung durch Etablierung paralleler Reduktion, Carbamidomethylierung und Propionylierung minimiert und damit zusätzlich Probenverluste reduziert. Die dadurch erreichte Erhö-hung der Identifikationszahlen ergab sich wiederum aus der höheren Repräsentanz nied-rig abundanter Proteine.
Im Rückblick ist es überraschend, dass die Verwendung der Adsorptionstendenzen von Proteinen bisher keine größere Rolle in der Probenvorbereitung proteomischer Analysen eingenommen hat. Die symbiotisch wirkende, aktive Denaturierung als Resultat der durchgeführten Derivatisierung zur Analysenpräparation macht die Adsorption auf Sili-ca-Oberflächen zum prädestinierten Mittel der Probengewinnung und schafft die Vo-raussetzung für die erreichte Verkürzung der Arbeitsabläufe und Verbesserung der Ergebnisse.
Progranulin deficiency is associated with neurodegeneration in humans and in mice. The mechanisms likely involve progranulin-promoted removal of protein waste via autophagy. We performed a deep proteomic screen of the pre-frontal cortex in aged (13–15 months) female progranulin-deficient mice (GRN−/−) and mice with inducible neuron-specific overexpression of progranulin (SLICK-GRN-OE) versus the respective control mice. Proteins were extracted and analyzed per liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS) on a Thermo Scientific™ Q Exactive Plus equipped with an ultra-high performance liquid chromatography unit and a Nanospray Flex Ion-Source. Full Scan MS-data were acquired using Xcalibur and raw files were analyzed using the proteomics software Max Quant. The mouse reference proteome set from uniprot (June 2015) was used to identify peptides and proteins. The DiB data file is a reduced MaxQuant output and includes peptide and protein identification, accession numbers, protein and gene names, sequence coverage and label free quantification (LFQ) values of each sample. Differences in protein expression in genotypes are presented in "Progranulin overexpression in sensory neurons attenuates neuropathic pain in mice: Role of autophagy" (C. Altmann, S. Hardt, C. Fischer, J. Heidler, H.Y. Lim, A. Haussler, B. Albuquerque, B. Zimmer, C. Moser, C. Behrends, F. Koentgen, I. Wittig, M.H. Schmidt, A.M. Clement, T. Deller, I. Tegeder, 2016) [1].
Immunotherapy involving checkpoint blockades of inhibitory co-receptors is effective in combating cancer. Despite this, the full range of mediators that inhibit T-cell activation and influence anti-tumor immunity is unclear. Here, we identify the GTPase-activating protein (GAP) Rasal1 as a novel TCR-ZAP-70 binding protein that negatively regulates T-cell activation and tumor immunity. Rasal1 inhibits via two pathways, the binding and inhibition of the kinase domain of ZAP-70, and GAP inhibition of the p21ras-ERK pathway. It is expressed in activated CD4 + and CD8 + T-cells, and inhibits CD4 + T-cell responses to antigenic peptides presented by dendritic cells as well as CD4 + T-cell responses to peptide antigens in vivo. Furthermore, siRNA reduction of Rasal1 expression in T-cells shrinks B16 melanoma and EL-4 lymphoma tumors, concurrent with an increase in CD8 + tumor-infiltrating T-cells expressing granzyme B and interferon γ-1. Our findings identify ZAP-70-associated Rasal1 as a new negative regulator of T-cell activation and tumor immunity.
Regulation of protein turnover allows cells to react to their environment and maintain homeostasis. Proteins can show different turnover rates in different tissue, but little is known about protein turnover in different brain cell types. We used dynamic SILAC to determine half-lives of over 5100 proteins in rat primary hippocampal cultures as well as in neuron-enriched and glia-enriched cultures ranging from <1 to >20 days. In contrast to synaptic proteins, membrane proteins were relatively shorter-lived and mitochondrial proteins were longer-lived compared to the population. Half-lives also correlate with protein functions and the dynamics of the complexes they are incorporated in. Proteins in glia possessed shorter half-lives than the same proteins in neurons. The presence of glia sped up or slowed down the turnover of neuronal proteins. Our results demonstrate that both the cell-type of origin as well as the nature of the extracellular environment have potent influences on protein turnover.