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The continuous progress in the structural and functional characterization of aquaporins increasingly attracts attention to study their roles in certain mammalian diseases. Although several structures of aquaporins have already been solved by crystallization, the challenge of producing sufficient amounts of functional proteins still remains. CF (cell free) expression has emerged in recent times as a promising alternative option in order to synthesize large quantities of membrane proteins, and the focus of this report was to evaluate the potential of this technique for the production of eukaryotic aquaporins. We have selected the mouse aquaporin 4 as a representative of mammalian aquaporins. The protein was synthesized in an E. coli extract based cell-free system with two different expression modes, and the efficiencies of two modes were compared. In both, the P-CF (cell-free membrane protein expression as precipitate) mode generating initial aquaporin precipitates as well as in the D-CF (cell-free membrane protein expression in presence of detergent) mode, generating directly detergent solubilized samples, we were able to obtain mg amounts of protein per ml of cell-free reaction. Purified aquaporin samples solubilized in different detergents were reconstituted into liposomes, and analyzed for the water channel activity. The calculated Pf value of proteoliposome samples isolated from the D-CF mode was 133 µm/s at 10°C, which was 5 times higher as that of the control. A reversible inhibitory effect of mercury chloride was observed, which is consistent with previous observations of in vitro reconstituted aquaporin 4. In this study, a fast and convenient protocol was established for functional expression of aquaporins, which could serve as basis for further applications such as water filtration.
The title compound, C15H14N2O4, has a trans–gauche [O/C/C/C–O/C/C/C] (TG) conformation. The angle between the planes of aromatic rings is 76.4 (3)°. The crystal structure is stabilized by van der Waals interactions and C—H ... O hydrogen bonds. The crystal used was a non-merohedral twin with a fractional contribution of the minor component of 0.443 (5).
The title compound. C15H14N2O4, (I), has a gauche–gauche (O/C/C/C—O/C/C/C or GG) conformation and is a positional isomer of propane-1,3-diyl bis(pyridine-3-carboxylate), (II). The molecule of (I) lies on a twofold rotation axis, which passes through the central C atom of the aliphatic chain, giving one half-molecule per asymmetric unit. There is excellent agreement of the geometric parameters of (I) and (II). The most obvious differences between them are the O/C/C/C—O/C/C/C torsion angles [56.6 (2)° in (I) and 174.0 (3)/70.2 (3)° in (II) for GG and TG conformations, respectively] and the dihedral angle between the planes of the aromatic rings [80.3 (10)° in (I) and 76.5 (3)° in (II)]. The crystal structure is stabilized by weak C—H ... N and C—H ... O hydrogen bonding.
In contrast to the previous structure determinations of the title structure, (NH4)2[MoS4], the present determination at 173 K localized the positions of the H atoms. The title structure belongs to the beta-K2SO4 family and all the ions are located on crystallographic mirror planes. The ions are held together by N—H ... S hydrogen bonds (some of which are bifurcated), forming a three-dimensional network. One of the N atoms has nine contacts to the S atoms shorter than 4 Å, and the other has ten.
Acute myeloid/lymphoid leukemia is a fatal hematological malignancy characterized by accumulation of nonfunctional, immature blasts, which interferes with the production of normal blood cells. Activating mutations of receptor tyrosine kinases are common genetic lesions in leukemia. FLT3-ITD is a frequent activating mutation found in AML patients, leading to uncontrolled proliferation of leukemic blasts. FLT3-ITD directly activates STAT5, leading to the induction of STAT5 target gene expression like PIM kinases and SOCS genes. STAT5 and PIM kinases have been shown to play a crucial role in the FLT3-ITD mediated transformation. On the other hand, the role of SOCS proteins in FLT3-ITD mediated transformation has not been studied to date. SOCS proteins are part of a negative feedback mechanism that controls Jak kinases downstream of cytokine receptors. One of the SOCS family members, SOCS1 has been reported to suppress oncogenecity of several activating kinases implicated in hematologic malignancies. In this thesis the role of these SOCS proteins in FLT3-ITD mediated transformation (in vitro) and leukemogenesis (in vivo) is systematically explored. Expression of FLT3-ITD in cell lines of myeloid (32D) and lymphoid (Ba/F3) origin, led to CIS, SOCS1 and SOCS2 expression. FLT3-ITD expression in primary murine bone marrow stem/progenitor cells led to a 59 fold induction of SOCS1 expression. Furthermore, FLT3-ITD positive AML cell lines (MV4-11, MOLM-13) show kinase dependent CIS, SOCS1, and SOCS3 expression. Importantly SOCS1 is highly expressed in AML patients with FLT3-ITD compared to healthy individuals. SOCS1 protein was expressed in FLT3-ITD transduced murine bone marrow stem cells and SOCS1 expression was abolished with kinase inhibition in MOLM-13 cell line. In conclusion, SOCS1 was highly regulated by FLT3-ITD in myeloid, lymphoid cell lines, in bone marrow stem/progenitors and in AML patient samples. SOCS1 co-expression did not affect FLT3-ITD mediated signaling and proliferation, but abolished IL-3 mediated proliferation and protected 32D cells from interferon-α and interferon-γ mediated growth inhibition. FLT3-ITD expressing 32D cells showed diminished STAT1 activation in response to interferons (α and γ). Alone, SOCS1 strongly inhibited cytokine induced colony formation of bone marrow stem and progenitors, but not FLT3-ITD induced colony formation. Most importantly, in the presence of growth inhibitory interferon-γ, SOCS1 co-expression with FLT3-ITD led to increased colony formation compared to FLT3-ITD alone. Taken together, FLT3-ITD induced and exogenously expressed SOCS1, shielded cells from external cytokines, signals, while not affecting FLT3-ITD induced proliferation/signaling. In further experiments the in vivo effects of SOCS1 were studied in a bone marrow transplantation model. SOCS1 bone marrow transplants were unable to engraft/proliferate in mice. FLT3-ITD was shown to induce a myeloproliferative disease. Both control (empty vector), SOCS1 transplanted mice were normal and did not show any disease phenotype. FLT3-ITD alone and SOCS1 co-expressing FLT3-ITD developed either myeloproliferative disease or acute lymphoblastic leukemia with equal distribution. SOCS1 co-expression with FLT3-ITD led to a decreased latency. Mice transplanted with FLT3-ITD alone and SOCS1 co-expressing FLT3-ITD displayed enlarged spleens, liver and hypercellular bone marrow indicating infiltration of leukemic cells. Mice were also anemic and showed decreased platelet counts. Importantly SOCS1 co-expression particularly shortened the latency of myeloproliferative disease but not of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. In summary, in the context of FLT3-ITD, SOCS1 acts as a ‘conditional oncogene’ and cooperates with FLT3-ITD in the development of myeloproliferative disease. With these data we propose the following model: FLT3-ITD induces SOCS gene expression, which shields cells against proliferation and differentiation signals from cytokines, while not affecting FLT3-ITD mediated proliferative signals. This leaves cells under the dictate of FLT3-ITD thereby contributing to leukemogenesis. Similar to FLT3-ITD, BCR/ABL (P190) (an oncogenic fusion kinase often found in acute lymphoblastic leukemia) induces SOCS gene expression in K562 and long-term cultured cells from patients with acute lymphoblastic leukemia. SOCS1 co-expression does not affect BCR/ABL mediated proliferation while abrogating IL-3 mediated proliferation. These findings suggest that SOCS proteins may play a general co-operative role in the context of oncogenes which aberrantly activate STAT3/5 independently of JAK kinases. This study reveals a novel molecular mechanism of FLT3-ITD mediated leukemogenesis and suggests SOCS genes as potential therapeutic targets.
Poster presentation at 5th German Conference on Cheminformatics: 23. CIC-Workshop Goslar, Germany. 8-10 November 2009 Protein kinases are important targets for drug development. The almost identical protein folding of kinases and the common co-substrate ATP leads to the problem of inhibitor selectivity. Type II inhibitors, targeting the inactive conformation of kinases, occupy a hydrophobic pocket with less conserved surrounding amino acids. Human polo-like kinase 1 (Plk1) represents a promising target for approaches to identify new therapeutic agents. Plk1 belongs to a family of highly conserved serine/threonine kinases, and is a key player in mitosis, where it modulates the spindle checkpoint at metaphase/anaphase transition. Plk1 is over-expressed in all today analyzed human tumors of different origin and serves as a negative prognostic marker in cancer patients. The newly identified inhibitor, SBE13, a vanillin derivative, targets Plk1 in its inactive conformation. This leads to selectivity within the Plk family and towards Aurora A. This selectivity can be explained by docking studies of SBE13 into the binding pocket of homology models of Plk1, Plk2 and Plk3 in their inactive conformation. SBE13 showed anti-proliferative effects in cancer cell lines of different origins with EC50 values between 5 microM and 39 microM and induced apoptosis. Increasing concentrations of SBE13 result in increasing amounts of cells in G2/M phase 13 hours after double thymidin block of HeLa cells. The kinase activity of Plk1 was inhibited with an IC50 of 200 pM. Taken together, we could show that carefully designed structure-based virtual screening is well-suited to identify selective type II kinase inhibitors targeting Plk1 as potential anti-cancer therapeutics.
Employing NMR spectroscopy, it is not only possible to calculate the three dimensional structures of single proteins, but also to study dynamics and conformational changes of protein-complexes. In fact that is an important aspect, since the protein function depends on dynamics and interactions with other molecules. Therefore the study of protein-protein interactions is of highest importance for a better understanding of biological processes. Based on NMR methods, in this thesis we were able to determine protein-protein interactions within the enterobacterial Rcs signalling complex which is regulated via a phosphorelay. Originally identified as regulator of capsule synthesis, the Rcs phosphorelay is now considered to be implicated in stress response caused by disturbances in the peptidoglycan layer. Beyond that the Rcs system is involved in multiplex transcriptional networks including cell division, motility, biofilm formation and virulence. Because of such global nature and its extraordinary structural organisation involving membrane integrated sensor proteins (RcsC, RcsD), coactivators (RcsF, RcsA) and a transcription factor (RcsB), the Rcs system is one of the most remarkable phosphorelays in the family of enterobacteriacaea. During the complex phosphotransfer the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain of the intermediary RcsD protein mediates the phosphotransfer between RcsC and RcsB, and probably modulates the phosphorylation state of the response regulator RcsB. Therefore the present work has been focused on the interface between RcsD and RcsB in more detail. In the first part of the thesis a new domain within the RcsD protein has been identified and structurally analysed by liquid NMR spectroscopy. RcsD is an inner membrane bound hybrid sensor like-kinase composed of a periplasmic sensor domain and a cytoplasmic portion. The cytoplasmic part contains the histidine like-kinase (HK) domain and the histidine phosphotransferase (HPt) domain. By analysis of the secondary structure in more detail, it was shown here that the two domains are intermitted by an additional 13.3 kDa domain. Corresponding to the position of the ABL (α−β−loop) domain of RcsC, located C-terminal to the RcsC-HK domain, the new identified domain was named RcsD-ABL. The central structural element of RcsD-ABL is a β-sheet composed of six strands with a β1−β2−β3−β4−β6−β5 topology and surrounded by two α-helices α1 and α2. In the second part of the thesis, RcsD-ABL is identified as a binding domain for the response regulator RcsB by NMR titration experiments. Such a binding domain for a response regulator has so far only been described for the histidine kinase CheA. In reportergene assays with β-galactosidase and ONPG as substrate it was shown that overexpression of RcsD-ABL in high amounts inhibited binding of RcsB to its target promoter. The β-galactosidase activity was reduced by 80 % with respect to cells carrying no plasmid encoding RcsD-ABL. The mapping of the binding interface was successfully achieved by chemical shift perturbations, a fast mapping protocol and selective labelling. It was shown that the interaction between RcsD-ABL and RcsB takes place via a binding interface comprising mainly the two α-helices of RcsD-ABL and the α-helices α7, α8 and α10 in the effector domain of RcsB. In the third part of the thesis, the interaction of RcsB with RcsD-ABL was related to that with RcsD-HPt. Using NMR titration experiments and ITC measurements, a comparison of the binding constants (Kd) of RcsB interacting either with the isolated RcsD-ABL (2 PM) or the isolated RcsDHPt domain (40 PM) revealed a higher affinity of RcsD-ABL to RcsB. A conjugate of RcsD-ABL-HPt interacting with RcsB decreased the Kd in the one-site fitting mode to 10 PM. However, the two-site fitting mode applied for RcsD-ABL-HPt/RcsB interaction resulted in a Kd (RcsD-ABL) of 2 PM and a Kd (RcsD-HPt) of 8 PM, indicating that RcsD-ABL enhances the binding of RcsD-HPt to RcsB. In the last part of the thesis, it was partly possible together with the data obtained from NMR titration experiments, PRE measurements and a HADDOCK protocol to develop a geometrical model for the interaction of RcsD with RcsB. In this model the receiver domain of RcsB interacts with the RcsD-HPt domain and the RcsB effector domain interacts with the RcsD-ABL domain. These results lead to surprising insights on the regulation of phosphorelays, since normally the effector domain binds to DNA. Here the effector domain is recognized by the newly identified RcsD-ABL domain. Prospectively, further investigations of phosphorylation affects and mutational studies will be of great interest.
Human Transformer2-beta (hTra2-beta) is an important member of the serine/arginine-rich protein family, and contains one RNA recognition motif (RRM). It controls the alternative splicing of several pre-mRNAs, including those of the calcitonin/calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), the survival motor neuron 1 (SMN1) protein and the tau protein. Accordingly, the RRM of hTra2-beta specifically binds to two types of RNA sequences [the CAA and (GAA)2 sequences]. We determined the solution structure of the hTra2-beta RRM (spanning residues Asn110–Thr201), which not only has a canonical RRM fold, but also an unusual alignment of the aromatic amino acids on the beta-sheet surface. We then solved the complex structure of the hTra2-beta RRM with the (GAA)2 sequence, and found that the AGAA tetra-nucleotide was specifically recognized through hydrogen-bond formation with several amino acids on the N- and C-terminal extensions, as well as stacking interactions mediated by the unusually aligned aromatic rings on the beta-sheet surface. Further NMR experiments revealed that the hTra2-beta RRM recognizes the CAA sequence when it is integrated in the stem-loop structure. This study indicates that the hTra2-beta RRM recognizes two types of RNA sequences in different RNA binding modes.
Der L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiporter CaiT ist ein Mitglied der Betain/Carnitin/Cholin Transporter (BCCT) Familie. Sekundärtransporter der BCCT Familie transportieren Substrate, die eine positiv-geladene quartäre Ammoniumgruppe besitzen. CaiT besteht aus 504 Amiosäuren und besitzt ein moleculares Gewicht von etwa 56 kDa. In Enterobakterien wie Escherichia coli, Proteus mirabilis und Salmonella typhimurium wird die Expression des caiTABCDE Operons unter anaeroben Bedingungen induziert. Unter diesen Bedinungen ist CaiT der Haupttransporter des Betain-Derivates L-Carnitin. In Enterobakterien wird L-Carnitin unter anaeroben Bedingungen aufgenommen und dehydratisiert wobei Crotonobetain ensteht. Crotonobetain wird anschließend zum Endprodukt gamma-Butyrobetain reduziert. Gamma-Butyrobetain ist das Gegensubstrat, das aus der Zelle hinaustransportiert wird, wenn L-Carnitin in die Zelle aufgenommen wird. Der Austauschmechanismus von LCarnitin gegen gamma-Butyrobetain geschieht ohne das Vorhandensein eines elektrochemischen Gradients, d.h. CaiT ist sowohl H+- als auch Na+-unabhängig. Ein Ziel dieser Arbeit war es die drei-dimensionale (3D) Struktur von CaiT mittels Röntgenstrukturanalyse zu lösen. Weiterhin sollten mit Hilfe der 3D-Struktur und funktionellen Studien detailiertere Erkenntnisse über den kationenunabhängigen Antiportmechanismus von CaiT ermittelt werden. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden die 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen von drei CaiT-Homologen der Enterobakterien P. mirabilis (PmCaiT), E. coli (EcCaiT) und S. typhimurium (StCaiT) mittels molekularem Ersatz (engl.: molecular replacement, MR) mit einem Alanin-Model des CaiT verwandten Na+/Glycinbetain Symporters BetP gelöst. PmCaiT konnte mit einer Auflösung von 2.3 Å gelöst werden. Das Protein kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe H3, mit drei Molekülen in der asymmetrischen Einheit (engl.: asymmetric unit, AU). Die drei PmCaiT-Moleküle ordneten sich innerhalb der AU um eine kristallographische dreifach Symmetrieachse an. EcCaiT wurde mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT bei einer Auflösung von 3.5 Å gelöst. EcCaiT kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P32, ebenfalls mit drei Molekülen in der AU, jedoch ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Während der Verfeinerung des EcCaiT-Models wurde eine strenge dreifache nichtkristallographische Symmetry (engl.: non-crystallographic symmetry, NCS) angewandt. StCaiT, das ebenfalls mittels MR mit einem Alanin-Model von PmCaiT, aber bei einer Auflösung von 4.0 Å gelöst wurde, kristallisierte in der Kristallraumgruppe P65, ebenfalls mit drei StCaiT-Molekülen in der AU, ohne kristallographische Symmetry. Bei der Verfeinerung des StCaiT-Modells wurde wie bei EcCaiT eine strenge NCS angewandt. Da die Auflösung von 4.0 Å bei StCaiT zu niedrig ist um detailierte moleculare Erkenntnisse zu gewinnen, wurden Protein- sowie Substratinteraktionen nur an den Strukturen von PmCaiT und EcCaiT analysiert. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe weisen jedoch einen ähnlichen strukturellen Aufbau auf. In der Röntgenkristallstruktur bildet CaiT ein symmetrisches Trimer, das über ionische und polare Wechselwirkungen zwischen den Protomeren stabilisiert wird. Der trimere Oligomerisierungszustand von CaiT in Detergenzlösung sowie in zweidimensionalen Lipidmembrankristallen wurde bereits in früheren Arbeiten gezeigt. Jedes der drei CaiT-Protomere besteht aus zwölf Transmembranhelices (TMH), die N- und C-terminalen Domänen des Proteins befinden sich auf der cytoplasmatischen Seite. Zehn der TMH bilden zwei invertierte Wiederholungseinheiten aus jeweils fünf TMH. Die erste Einheit besteht aus den TMH 3 – 7, die invertierte zweite Einheit besteht aus den TMH 8 – 12. Beide Wiederholungseinheiten sind strukturell nahezu identisch und lassen sich fast vollständig übereinanderlegen, jedoch weisen die Aminosäuren der beiden Einheiten keine signifikante Sequenzidentität auf. Die ersten beiden Helices der Wiederholungseinheiten, die TMH 3 – 4 und die TMH 8 – 9, bilden ein antiparalleles vier-Helix-Bündel, in dem in CaiT zwei Substratbindestellen lokalisiert sind. Eine derartige Transporterarchitektur wurde erstmals in der Struktur des Na+/Alanin Symporters LeuTAa des thermophilen Bakteriums Aquifex aeolicus gezeigt. Bislang wurden, inklusive CaiT, sieben Sekundärtransporterstrukturen gelöst, die diese LeuT-Transporterarchitektur aufweisen. Ungewöhnlich dabei ist, dass diese sieben Sekundärtransporter fünf verschiedenen Transporterfamilien angehören und eine Verwandschaft auf Basis der Aminosäuren nicht zu finden ist. Da jedoch die tertiäre Struktur dieser Tansporter konserviert ist, kann davon ausgegangen werden, dass sie alle von einem Urprotein entstanden sind, welches zunächst aus fünf TMH bestanden haben muss. Im Laufe der Evolution hat sich das Urgen des Urproteins zunächst dupliziert und die weitere Evolution hat zwar die Aminosäuresequenz verändert und den Umweltbedingungen angepasst, jedoch ist die tertiäre Struktur erhalten geblieben. Da sich die tertiäre Struktur der sieben Sekundärtransporter so stark ähnelt, ist zu vermuten, dass auch der Transportmechanismus ähnlich, jedoch nicht identisch ist. Nach dem strukturellen Aufbau der Transporter, der Lage der Substratbindestellen in den jeweiligen Transportern und der Tatsache, dass es sich bei diesen Proteinen um Membranproteine handelt, wurde ein Transportmechanismus aufgestellt, in dem die Bindestelle des zu transportierende Substrats alternierend zu beiden Seiten der Membran zugänglich ist, ohne jedoch jemals den Substratweg innerhalb des Proteins vollständig zu öffnen. Dieser Mechanismus wurde als “alternating access mechanism” beschrieben. Anhand der unterschiedlichen Zustände, in denen einige der Transporter kristallisierten, kann abgeleitet werden, welche Konformationsänderungen erforderlich sind um das Substrat von einer Seiter der Membran auf die andere zu transportieren. Bisher kristallisierten einzelne der sechs Transporter in der nach außen gerichteten offenen Form, der nach außen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht mehr zugänglich ist, in einer Form, die keine Öffnungspräferenz der Substratbindestelle zu einer Seite der Membran hat und in der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle jedoch nicht geöffnet ist. CaiT kristallisierte in der noch fehlenden Konformation, der nach innen gerichteten Form, in der die Substratbindestelle zugänglich ist. Mit dieser noch fehlenend Konformation kann der Transportzyklus des “alternating access mechanism” vollständig beschrieben werden. Alle drei CaiT-Homologe kristallisierten in der nach innen gerichteten, offenen Konformation. Im Gegensatz zur EcCaiT-Struktur kristallisierte PmCaiT in der substratungebundenen Form. In der StCaiT-Struktur konnte aufgrund der niedrigen Auflösung kein Substrat nachgewiesen werden. In der EcCaiT-Struktur sind zwei gamma-Butyrobetain-Moleküle gebunden. Das erste Molekül wurde in der zentralen Substratbindestelle, der sogenannten Tryptophan-Box bestehend aus vier Tryptophanen, im Zentrum des Protein lokalisiert. Das zweite gamma-Butyrobetain-Molekül wurde in einer Vertiefung an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche gefunden. Beide Substrate werden hauptsächlich über Kation-Pi-Interaktionen zwischen der positiv geladenen quatären Ammoniumgruppe des Substrats und des Pi-Elektronensystems der Tryptophane in den jeweiligen Bindestellen gebunden. Eine besondere Eigenschaft von CaiT ist der H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Substrattransport. Die CaiT-Struktur erklärt warum kein zusätzliches Kation benötigt wird um Substrat zu binden oder zu transportieren. In der EcCaiT-Struktur ist eine wichtige polare nicht-bindende Interaktion zwischen der Carboxylgruppe des gamma-Butyrobetains und dem Schwefelatom eines Methionins in der zentrale Bindestelle zu erkennen. Dieses Methionin ist konserviert in den prokaryotischen CaiTs und in den Na+-unabhängigen eukaryotischen L-Carnitin Transportern (OCTN), jedoch ist es nicht konserviert im Na+-abhängigen verwandten Glycinbetain Transporter BetP. In BetP ist diese Position des Methionins durch ein Valin ersetzt. Die Mutation des Methionins in CaiT zu Valin ermöglicht zwar immernoch die H+- bzw. Na+-unabhängige Bindung des Substrates durch die Tryptophan-Box, jedoch ist der Substrattransport nahezu vollständig zerstört. Eine derart wichtige Substratkoordinierende Funktion des Schwefelatoms eines Methionins wurde bisher nicht beschrieben. Eine weitere Stelle, die in H+- bzw. Na+-abhängigen Transporter mit H+ bzw. Na+ besetzt ist, ist in CaiT von einem positiv geladenen Arginin eingenommen. Eine positive Ladung an dieser Stelle stabilisiert den Bereich im Protein in der Nähe der zentralen Substratbindestelle. Die Mutation des Arginins zu Glutamat in CaiT erzielt eine vollständige Inaktivierung des Substrattansports. Durch Zugabe von Na+ im Transportansatz kann die Substrattransportaktivität der Glutamat-Mutante jedoch teilweise zurückerlangt werden. Diese eben beschriebenen Aminosäurereste in den beiden Stellen des Proteins erklären die Kationenunabhängigkeit von CaiT. Die Aktivierung des Antiportmechanismus in CaiT wurde mit Hilfe von Bindungsstudien an rekonstituiertem Protein ermittelt. Diese Messungen ergaben für das Wildtypprotein ein sigmoidales Substratbindungsverhalten, was auf ein positiv-kooperatives Bindungsverhalten hindeutet. Die beiden Substratbindestellen im Protein sowie die beiden unterschiedlichen Substrate, L-Carnitin und gamma-Butyrobetain, lassen auf einen heterotropen positiv-kooperativen Bindungs- und einen allosterisch regulierten Transportmechanismus schließen. Bei diesem Mechanismus erhöht die Bindung eines Substrats in der regulatorischen Bindestelle durch induzierte Konformationsänderungen die Affinität eines anderen Substrats in einer weiteren Substratbindestelle. Die regulatorische Bindestelle in CaiT befindet sich an der extrazellulären Proteinoberfläche. Eine Schwächung der Substrataffinität in dieser Bindestelle durch Einführung einer Mutation, verstärkt das sigmoidale Substratbindungsverhalten und hat einen negativen Einfluss auf den Substrattransport. Durch die in dieser Arbeit gelösten 3D-Röntgenkristallstrukturen der zwei CaiT-Homologen, PmCaiT und EcCaiT, sowie den durchgeführten funktionellen Studien sowohl an Wildtypprotein wie auch an Mutanten konnte ein L-Carnitin/gamma-Butyrobetain Antiport-Mechanismus für CaiT vorzuschlagen werden.
Transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs) are rare but fatal neurodegenerative diseases affecting human and animals. The prion protein which is the causative agent, according to “protein-only” hypothesis misfold in to rogue amyloid conformer. Despite several years of studies, the atomic structural details of the rogue conformers have not been clearly understood. This study focused on developing an in-vitro conversion method, which allows us to monitor the transition from unfolded state of prion protein to fibril state. In order to reach maximal unfolded state, we have used 8 M urea as chemical denaturant, pH 2 and prion fragment 90-230 as the model. It has been demonstrated earlier that acidic pH and mild denaturant induce the fibril formation. The mechanism underlying the structural transition from monomeric state to polymeric form is largely unknown. We have confirmed by EM and AFM that fibrils are formed in our conditions, which resemble to naturally occurring fibrils in morphologies observed. The agitation accelerates the rate of fibril formation and, which allow us to do time-resolved NMR on these preparations. The conformational flexibility is inherent to amyloid fibrils and has been observed in our preparations. We aimed to map the important segment of prion protein, which forms the rigid core in its fibrillar structured form. Our time-resolved NMR studies allowed us to monitor the changes happening from unfolded state to fibrillar state. Analysis of data identified the segment between residues 145 to 223 forming the rigid core in these fibrils, which correspond to β strand 2, helix 2 and major part of helix 3 of native prion monomeric structure. Most of the point mutations which are associated with hereditary prion disease are part of rigid core, which undergo a refolding on fibril formation. The C-terminal residues from 224 to 230 displayed peak shifting and therefore, indicate the adaptation to a fibril specific conformation. The major part of N-terminal 90-144 segment, remains dynamic, which can be understood by their accessibility to amyloid specific antibodies. This provides novel structural insight to the amyloid formation from unfolded state of prion protein fragment 90-230, which represents the proteinase-K resistant part naturally occurring prions. Earlier studies have established the core to 160-220 where hydrogen-deuterium exchange mass spectrometry or site-directed spin labeling EPR spectroscopy was used for analysis. Those studies have been initiated from either native-like or partially unfolded state of recombinant prion protein, and therefore, it is quite striking to find out that fibrils initiated from unfolded monomeric state share the same “amyloid core”. This structural insight has important implications for understanding the molecular basis of prion propagation.