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Diese Arbeit teilt sich in zwei Themenblöcke, deren zentrales Element Borat-Anionen darstellen, die unterschiedlichste Funktionen erfüllen. Durch entsprechende Wahl der Substituenten am Bor können sowohl Anionen mit schwach koordinierenden Eigenschaften erzeugt werden, als auch Borate, die sich zum Einsatz als Ligand in der Koordinationschemie eignen. ...
C2-symmetric bisamidines : chiral Brønsted bases catalysing the Diels-Alder reaction of anthrones
(2008)
C2-symmetric bisamidines 8 have been tested as chiral Brønsted bases in the Diels- Alder reaction of anthrones and N-substituted maleimides. High yields of cycloadducts and significant asymmetric inductions up to 76% ee are accessible. The proposed mechanism involves proton transfer between anthrone and bisamidine, association of the resulting ions and finally a cycloaddition step stereoselectively controlled by the chiral ion pair.
Mit den in dieser Arbeit entwickelten und getesteten Nachweismethoden konnte in verschiedenen Marktstudien gezeigt werden, dass sowohl molekularbiologische als auch immunologische Verfahren für den Nachweis von versteckten Allergenen in Lebensmitteln geeignet und auch miteinander vergleichbar sind. Dies wurde in zwei Studien deutlich, in denen beide Methoden sowohl für den Haselnuss- bzw. Erdnussnachweis miteinander verglichen wurden. In beiden Studien wurde eine sehr gute Übereinstimmung der beiden Verfahren gefunden. Nur in Einzelfällen gab zwischen beiden Methoden Abweichungen im Resultat, was aber fast ausschließlich Proben betraf, die einen sehr geringen Anteil (ca. 10 ppm Protein) Haselnuss bzw. Erdnuss enthielten. Damit konnte erstmals im direkten Vergleich gezeigt werden, dass PCR-basierte Methoden für den Allergennachweis in prozessierten Lebensmitteln genauso gut geeignet sind, wie antikörperbasierte Methoden. Allerdings besteht bis zum heutigen Zeitpunkt das Problem solche Anteile korrekt zu quantifizieren, da es an Referenzmaterialien mangelt, die es ermöglichen würden einen Mengenstandard für ein quantitatives Verfahren herzustellen. Momentan sind quantitative Messungen nur exakt möglich, wenn die zu untersuchende Lebensmittelmatrix genau bekannt ist und ein entsprechender Standard generiert werden kann. Trotzdem bieten beide Verfahren die Möglichkeit prozessierte Lebensmittel sehr empfindlich auf allergene Bestandteile zu untersuchen, um somit sicherzustellen dass die aktuellen gesetzlichen Regelungen und Richtlinien für die Etikettierung von Lebensmitteln, wie die EU-Richtlinie 2006/146/EU bzw. die Lebensmittelkennzeichnungsverordnung (LMKV), von den Lebensmittelherstellern eingehalten werden. Weiterhin bieten die etablierten Nachweismethoden den Herstellern die Möglichkeit, ihre Produktion im Hinblick auf potenzielle Kontaminationsrisiken mit allergenen Zutaten zu überprüfen bzw. die Effizienz der verwendeten Reinigungsmethoden einzuschätzen. Dies wurde erstmals im Rahmen an einer Modellstudie in Zusammenarbeit mit einem Aromenhersteller durchgeführt. In dieser Studie sollte die Effizienz von verschiedenen Reinigungsprozeduren hinsichtlich der Kontaminationsgefahr von allergenfreien Nachfolgeprodukten überprüft werden. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass der verwendete Reinigungsprozess sehr effektiv abläuft und nicht mit Kontaminationen gerechnet werden muss. Diese Studie hat exemplarisch gezeigt, dass es möglich ist, allergenspezifische Nachweismethoden in einem Betrieb einzusetzen, um die Belastung der Produktionsanlage und der hergestellten Produkte mit potenziellen Allergenen zu überwachen. Prinzipiell sollte es also möglich sein allergenspezifische HAACCP Konzepte innerhalb eines Betriebes zu etablieren, um so die Produktsicherheit noch weiter zu verbessern. Abschließend kann man sagen, dass die Entwicklung von allergenspezifischen Nachweismethoden einen wichtigen Beitrag zur Gewährleistung der Lebensmittelsicherheit darstellt. Nicht nur dass diese Methoden wichtig sind, um bestehendes Recht zu überwachen, sie sind auch für die Lebensmittelproduzenten ein wichtiges Werkzeug die Qualität ihrer Produkte zu erhöhen.
Eine weltweite Veränderung der Lebensweise hat eine Zunahme der Anzahl adipöser Menschen und damit ein verstärktes Auftreten von Typ 2 Diabetes mellitus zur Folge. Eine häufig auftretende Komplikation dieser Erkrankung ist das diabetische Fußulkus, dessen molekularen und zellbiologischen Grundlagen weitestgehend unbekannt sind. Für einen normalen Wundheilungsverlauf ist ein Zusammenspiel vieler Wachstumsfaktoren und Zytokine essentiell. Auch die Insulinsensitivität der Haut scheint von großer Bedeutung zu sein. Die Funktionen von Insulin im Wundheilungsprozess und in der Haut sind weitestgehend unerforscht. Um ein besseres Verständnis für die Bedeutung von Insulin in der Wundheilung zu erhalten, bestand das Ziel dieser Arbeit in der Analyse eines Insulin-regulierten Enzyms in der Haut, der HMG-CoA-Reduktase, während des Heilungsprozesses normaler sowie diabetisch chronischer Wunden. Die HMG-CoA-Reduktase katalysiert den geschwindigkeitsbestimmenden Schritt im Mevalonat-Stoffwechselweg und ist somit indirekt an vielen zellulären Ereignissen beteiligt. Die Verletzung von murinem Hautgewebe führte zu einem Anstieg der HMG-CoA-Reduktase-mRNA-Expression an Tag 3 und an Tag 13 nach Verletzung. Die Lokalisation der HMG-CoA-Reduktase im Wundgewebe zeigte, dass insbesondere die am Wundrand gelegenen Keratinozyten durch eine besonders starke mRNA-Expression des Enzyms charakterisiert waren. Im Gegensatz dazu konnte im diabetischen, chronischen Wundgewebe keine Regulation der mRNA-Expression der HMG-CoA-Reduktase detektiert werden. Wundheilungsrelevante Faktoren, wie Insulin und EGF, induzierten die mRNA-Expression der HMG-CoA-Reduktase in HaCaT-Keratinozyten (in vitro). Für die Insulin-vermittelte mRNA-Induktion konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Transkriptionsfaktor SREBP2 für die Transkription des Gens essentiell war. Neben einer erhöhten Transkription der HMG-CoA-Reduktase wurde ebenfalls eine gesteigerte Enzymaktivität nach Insulin- oder EGF-Stimulation detektiert. Die Induktion der Insulin-vermittelten HMG-CoA-Reduktase-Aktivität stand in einem funktionellen Zusammenhang zur Biosynthese des angiogenen Faktors VEGF. Der Einfluss der HMG-CoA-Reduktase auf die VEGF-Biosynthese war posttranskriptionell über die Phosphorylierung des eIF4E-BP1 vermittelt. Auch im tierexperimentellen Modell (in vivo) konnte durch eine Statin-Behandlung bei Mäusen gezeigt werden, dass die Enzymaktivität der HMG-CoA-Reduktase in Keratinozyten für eine normale VEGF-Expression essentiell war. Die VEGF-Synthese wurde von der Aktivität der HMG-CoA-Reduktase in vivo, wie in vitro nach Insulin-Stimulation, posttranskriptionell beeinflusst. Die Analyse weiterer wundheilungsrelevanter Vorgänge ergab, dass eine Inhibierung der HMG-CoA-Reduktase in vivo wie in vitro eine Verringerung der Keratinozytenproliferation zur Folge hatte. Die Keratinozytenproliferation ist ein wichtiger Vorgang bei der Reepithelisierung einer Wunde. Ist das Wundareal durch Keratinozyten geschlossen, beginnt die Differenzierung der Zellen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit konnten zeigen, dass der Differenzierungsprozess von Keratinozyten in vitro mit einer Induktion der HMG-CoA Redukase Aktivität assoziiert war. Eine Hemmung der Enzymaktivität hatte eine Inhibierung der mRNA-Expression von Keratinozyten-Differenzierungsmarkern, wie Involucrin, Filaggrin und Keratin 1 zur Folge. Zusammenfassend weisen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit darauf hin, dass die HMG-CoA-Reduktase wichtige Prozesse, wie Wundangiogenese und Keratinozytenproliferation, im kutanen Wundheilungsverlauf beeinflusst.
The title compound, C15H14N2O4, is an important intermediate for the synthesis of thermotropic liquid crystals. The dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 84.29 (4)°. An N-H...O hydrogen bond connects the molecules into chains running along the b axis. In addition, the crystal packing is stabilized by weak C-H...O hydrogen bonds. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.036; wR factor = 0.096; data-to-parameter ratio = 14.3.
In the title compound, C13H10N2O2, a Schiff base derivative, the dihedral angle between the two aromatic rings is 31.58 (3)°. The C=N double bond is essentially coplanar with the nitrophenyl ring. The torsion angle of the imine double bond is 175.97 (13)°, indicating that the C=N double bond is in a trans configuration. The crystal structure is stabilized by C-H...O contacts and [pi]-[pi] interactions (centroid-centroid distances of 3.807 and 3.808 Å). Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; R factor = 0.034; wR factor = 0.093; data-to-parameter ratio = 10.3.
The molecule of the title compound, C14H16N2O2, is located on a crystallographic twofold rotation axis. The central O-C-C-O bridge adopts a gauche conformation. One of the amine H atoms is disordered over two equally occupied positions. The crystal structure is stabilized by N-H...O and N-H...N hydrogen bonds. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 Å; disorder in main residue; R factor = 0.049; wR factor = 0.119; data-to-parameter ratio = 17.9.
In the title compound, C27H16F6N2O6, the nitro groups are almost coplanar with the aromatic rings to which they are attached [dihedral angles = 3.5 (5) and 6.2 (3)°]. The dihedral angles between adjacent aromatic rings are 78.07 (8) and 71.11 (8)° for nitrophenyl/phenyl and 69.50 (8)° for phenyl/phenyl. An intermolecular C-H...[pi] interaction seems to be effective in the stabilization of the structure. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.004 Å; R factor = 0.045; wR factor = 0.092; data-to-parameter ratio = 12.5.
The research presented in this thesis characterizes U2AF homology motifs (UHM) and their interactions with UHM ligand motifs (ULM) in the context of splicing regulation. UHM domains are a subgroup of RNA recognition motifs (RRM) originally discovered in the proteins U2AF65 and U2AF35. Whereas canonical RRMs are usually involved in binding of RNA, UHM domains bind tryptophan containing linear protein motifs (ULM) instead. In the first article, we analyze the complex network of interactions between splicing factors and RNA that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´ splice site of an intron. The protein U2AF65 binds a pyrimidine-rich element in introns and recruits U2snRNP by binding its protein component SF3b155. My contribution was to define the binding site of the protein U2AF65 to the intrinsically unstructured N-terminus of the scaffolding protein SF3b155. I could show that the UHM domain of U2AF65 recognizes a ULM in SF3b155, and that this binding site is not overlapping with the binding sites of other splicing factors, like p14, to SF3b155. As the U2AF65-UHM:SF3b155-ULM interaction is mutually exclusive with an interaction between U2AF65-UHM and a ULM in the splicing factor SF1, which was reported to initially recognize the branch point sequence, my results provide the molecular details on how SF3b155 replaces SF1 during spliceosomal reorganizations. In the second article, we show that overexpression of the UHM domain of the splicing factor SPF45 induces exon 6 skipping in the pre-mRNA of Fas (CD95/APO-1). I provide evidence for in vitro binding of SPF45-UHM to ULM sequences in the splicing factors U2AF65, SF1, and SF3b155. I crystallized free and SF3b155-bound SPF45 UHM and solved both structures by X-ray crystallography. The analysis of the complex interface and sequence differences in the ULMs allowed me to design mutations of SPF45-UHM, which selectively inhibit binding to distinct ULMs. After assessing the ULM binding properties in vitro, we could show that the activity of SPF45-UHM in influencing the splicing pattern of Fas relies on interactions with SF3b155 and/or SF1, but that an interaction with U2AF65 is dispensable. A mechanism for the activity of SPF45-UHM could thus be engaging in ULM interactions and thus interfering with the network of interactions that initiate the assembly of the spliceosome at the 3´splice site, as described above. In the third article, we describe an unusual flexible homodimerization mode of the UHM in the splicing factor Puf60, which enables simultaneous interactions with ULM sequences on other splicing factors. I could show that the NMR relaxation properties of Puf60-UHM are inconsistent with a model of a rigid dimer, but rather indicate a dimerization via a flexible linker. I identified a flexible loop in the peptide backbone of Puf60-UHM, and showed that mutiation of acidic residues in this loop impairs the dimerization. To analyze the dimerization interface in further detail, I solved the structure of Puf60-UHM by X-ray crystallography. The acidic residues in the flexible loop of one UHM dimer subunit mediate the dimerization by contacting basic residues on the β-sheet surface of the other dimer subunit. Differences in the four dimer interfaces observed for the eight molecules in the asymmetric unit of the crystal support the model of an undescribed, flexible mode of dimerization, and thus complement the NMR relaxation data. Furthermore, I could show that the Puf60-UHM dimer and U2AF65-UHM contact different ULM sequences on the SF3b155 N-terminus in vitro, thus providing a possible explanation for the mutual cooperative activation of Puf60 and U2AF65 in splicing assays described in the literature. The fourth article is a review about recent research on the recognition of DNA double strand breaks (DSB) by covalent histone modifications. The p53 binding protein 1 (53BP1) is a DSB sensor and a checkpoint protein for mitosis. Recent crystallographic evidence indicates that 53BP1 recognizes DSB sites by binding histone H4 dimetylated at lysine 20 (H4-K20). We provide a comprehensive overview of the atomic resolution structures that revealed how proteins can specifically recognize histone tail modifications, especially methylated lysines, to read the information stored in what is called the histone code.
Determination of the distribution of halocarbons in the tropical upper troposphere and stratosphere
(2008)
The aim of this thesis was to investigate distributions of 32 volatile chlorinated and/or brominated halocarbons that are currently believed to be present in the tropical upper troposphere and stratosphere and to contribute to stratospheric ozone depletion and also to global warming. For this purpose an analytical system was established, which is capable to measure ultra-low concentrated atmospheric trace gases. A quadrupole Mass Spectrometric (MS) Detector was attached to an existing Gas Chromatograph with pre-concentration system and Electron Capture Detector (ECD). The characterisation of the chromatographic system was significantly enhanced by the subsequent identification of 48 additional volatile organic compounds. Furthermore a Gaussian fit algorithm, which was developed in the workgroup, was applied to the chromatographic signals. This algorithm was proven to reflect peaks quantitatively and to enhance the performance of the integration process – especially the reproducibilities for peaks with a low signal to noise ratio. As it is known that the Electron Capture Detector responds nonlinear the new MS detector was checked for such behaviour and found to respond linear. In logical consistency the complete quantification process including e.g. pre-concentration of trace gases and signal integration can be considered as linear responding within the investigated parameter ranges. Moreover, the long term stability of the targeted halocarbons was proven inside the calibration standard containers over a period of 25 months. Many substances were also found to be stable inside the containers used for storage of air samples but a number of substances showed significant concentration changes. These were mainly CH3Cl (methyl chloride), CH3Br (methyl bromide), CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane), CHCl3 (chloroform), CCl4 (tetrachloromethane), C2Cl4 (tetrachloroethene), CH3CCl3 (methyl chloroform), CH2ClCH2Cl (1,2-dichloroethane) und C2H5Cl (chloroethane). But the number of affected substances and also the corresponding concentration changes varied between the individual containers. A systematic investigation of the influence of possible causes (e.g. air sampling methods, container materials) is recommended. Results from both internal detectors were compared and revealed biases and disadvantages of the ECD caused by its lower selectivity and its nonlinear response behaviour. Consequently the MS detector was chosen for the quantification of atmospheric trace gases. The quantification process was performed relative to externally calibrated air standards. To assess the uncertainties connected with different absolute calibration scales cross-comparisons between calibration standards of three different laboratories were carried out. Most substances’ calibrations agreed within the measurement uncertainties but significant differences were observed for CF2ClBr (H1211), CH3Cl (methyl chloride), CH2Cl2 (dichloromethane), CHCl3 (chloroform), CCl4 (tetrachloromethane) and CH3CCl3 (methyl chloroform). As five of these substances were also observed to show concentration changes inside sample containers it is likely, that such changes are responsible for calibration differences. In addition to the detailed assessment of uncertainties connected with the analytical quantification process a set of air samples was available for measurements. These samples mainly originated from the upper troposphere and lower and middle stratosphere in the tropics and the determined halocarbon quantities were used to investigate their distributions in the respective atmospheric regions. In detail, the altitudinal distributions and interrelations of 17 long-lived halocarbons in the tropical stratosphere were determined and compared with those of other stratospheric regions. Tracer-tracer-correlations of these substances in the tropical stratosphere were found to differ from those in mid- and high-latitudes. Characteristic fit functions relative to CF2Cl2 (F12) which are valid for the tropical stratosphere in 2005 were derived as well as time-independent fit functions of fractional release factors (FRFs) relative to the mean age of air. Both sets of correlations could be used for the parameterisation and evaluation of models and also to reassess the Global Warming Potentials (GWPs) of the corresponding halocarbons which might affect future climate predictions. However, the data set on halocarbons in the tropical stratosphere is still insufficient to investigate the variability of tracer-tracer-correlations and FRFs caused by dynamical and photochemical processes. Therefore it is important for future research to perform additional measurements there and – if possible – to extend the measurements to the upper tropical stratosphere in order to characterise the sink of those halocarbons that are still present in these altitudes. In addition, the amount of chlorine and bromine present in the form of organic compounds inside and above the main stratospheric entrance region (the Tropical Tropopause Layer, TTL) was quantified in the frame of a case study. This was possible because of a cooperation with scientists from the University of East Anglia which carried out measurements of six additional halocarbons leading to a total of 28 quantified target substances. Ten of these substances have short atmospheric lifetimes compared with the mean transport times of tropospheric air to the stratosphere (i.e. lifetimes below 0.5 years) and show non-uniform distributions in the upper troposphere. The contribution of these substances to stratospheric ozone depletion is subject of an ongoing scientific debate. In the performed case study a fraction range of short-lived halocarbons of 6 – 8 % (0.98 – 1.25 ppt) relative to the sum of bromine from organic substances and of 1.1 – 1.4 % (36.6 – 47.1 ppt) for the corresponding sum of chlorine was calculated to enter the stratosphere above Brazil in June 2005. Moreover by combining the data with tropospheric reference data and age of air observations the abundances of inorganic chlorine and bromine (Cly and Bry) were derived. At an altitude of 34 km an amount of 3062 ppt of Cly and 17.5 ppt of Bry from organic source gases was calculated. The latter is significantly lower than Bry mixing ratios inferred from quasisimultaneous BrO measurements at 33 km altitude above Brazil (Dorf, 2005, Dorf et al., 2008). But at the University of East Anglia indications for the presence of unknown brominated organic substances in the TTL were found which might cause this difference. Finally, a major result of this thesis adds to the knowledge of the composition of the troposphere as three Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) were first observed. Trifluorochloroethene, 3-chloropentafluoropropene and 4,4-dichlorohexafluoro-1-butene were found in air samples collected at the Taunus Observatory near Frankfurt (Main) and the Jungfraujoch High Altitude Research Station in Switzerland (Laube and Engel, 2008). Identification was possible because of an air plume containing high concentrations of these substances. It is suggested that the abundances found on this occasion originated from a local source. The atmospheric lifetimes of these substances are expected to be rather short as they contain a double bond. A quantitative calibration could only be derived for trifluorochloroethene but not for the other species by now. Thus, a relative sensitivity method was derived to get a first indication of the observed atmospheric abundances. All three CFCs could also be detected in air masses representative of background conditions, though with much lower concentrations. These species and some of their degradation products are toxic and could also be relevant for stratospheric and tropospheric ozone depletion. It is important to find out more about their atmospheric distributions, lifetimes, sinks and sources and their ability to reach the stratosphere to assess their possible influence on the global atmosphere. This will be done in the frame of the project "CLEARFOGG – Checking Layers of the Earths AtmospheRe For halogenated Ozone-depleting and Greenhouse Gases". This research project aims to perform a systematic scan of the atmosphere because there are indications for the presence of a number of halogenated organic compounds which are unknown by now. It was recently decided to be funded by the British National Environmental Research Council and will be carried out at the University of East Anglia mainly by the author of this thesis.