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Background: NH exchangers (NHEs) play a crucial role in regulating intra/extracellular pH, which is altered in cancer cells, and are therefore suitable targets to alter cancer cell metabolism in order to inhibit cell survival and proliferation. Among NHE inhibitors, amiloride family members are commonly used in clinical practice as diuretics; we focused on the amiloride HMA, reporting a net cytotoxic effect on a panel of human cancer cell lines; now we aim to provide new insights into the molecular events leading to cell death by HMA.
Methods: Colon cancer cell lines were treated with HMA and analysed with: morphological and cellular assays for cell viability and death, and autophagy; biochemical approaches to evaluate mitochondrial function and ROS production; in situ detection of DNA damage; molecular tools to silence crucial autophagy/necroptosis factors.
Results: HMA affects cellular morphology, alters mitochondrial structure and function, causes an increase in ROS, which is detrimental to DNA integrity, stimulates poly(ADP-ribose) synthesis, activates RIPK3-dependent death and triggers autophagy, which is unable to rescue cell survival. These features are hot points of an intricate network of processes, including necroptosis and autophagy, regulating the homeostasis between survival and death.
Conclusion: Our results allow the identification of multiple events leading to cell death in cancer cells treated with HMA. The here-defined intricate network activated by HMA could be instrumental to selectively target the key players of each pathway in the attempt to improve the global response to HMA. Our data could be the starting point for developing a newly designed targeted therapy.
Hypoxia triggers several mechanisms to adapt cells to a low oxygen environment. Mitochondria are major consumers of oxygen and a potential source of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In response to hypoxia they exchange or modify distinct subunits of the respiratory chain and adjust their metabolism, especially lowering the citric acid cycle. Intermediates of the citric acid cycle participate in regulating hypoxia inducible factors (HIF), the key mediators of adaptation to hypoxia. Here we summarize how hypoxia conditions mitochondria with consequences for ROS-production and the HIF-pathway.
Autophagy can act either as a tumor suppressor or as a survival mechanism for established tumors. To understand how autophagy plays this dual role in cancer, in vivo models are required. By using a highly heterogeneous C. elegans germline tumor, we show that autophagy-related proteins are expressed in a specific subset of tumor cells, neurons. Inhibition of autophagy impairs neuronal differentiation and increases tumor cell number, resulting in a shorter life span of animals with tumors, while induction of autophagy extends their life span by impairing tumor proliferation. Fasting of animals with fully developed tumors leads to a doubling of their life span, which depends on modular changes in transcription including switches in transcription factor networks and mitochondrial metabolism. Hence, our results suggest that metabolic restructuring, cell-type specific regulation of autophagy and neuronal differentiation constitute central pathways preventing growth of heterogeneous tumors.
Background: Alcohol drinking is associated with a serious risk of developing health problems as well as with a large number of traumatic injuries. Although chronic alcohol misuse is known to contribute to severe inflammatory complications, the effects of an acute alcohol misuse are still unclear. Here, the impact of acute alcohol drinking on leukocyte counts and their cellular functions were studied.
Methods: Twenty-two healthy volunteers (12 female, 10 male) received a predefined amount of a whiskey-cola mixed drink (40% v/v), at intervals of 20 min, over 4 h to achieve a blood alcohol concentration of 1‰. Blood samples were taken before drinking T0, 2 h (T2), 4 h (T4), 6 h (T6), 24 h (T24) and 48 h (T48) after starting drinking alcohol. Leukocytes, monocytes and granulocyte counts and their functions regarding the production of reactive oxidative species (ROS), phagocytosis and apoptosis were analyzed by flow cytometry.
Results: Total leukocyte counts significantly increased at T2 and T4, while granulocyte and monocyte counts decreased at T4 and T6 vs. T0. Monocytes increased significantly at T24 and T48 vs. T0. While the total number of ROS-producing leukocytes and notably granulocytes significantly increased, in parallel, the intracellular ROS intensity decreased at T2 and T6. The numbers of ROS-positive monocytes have shown a delayed modulation of ROS, with a significant reduction in the total number of ROS-producing cells at T48 and a significantly reduced intracellular ROS-intensity at T24. Phagocyting capacity of leukocytes significantly decreased at T4 and T6. In general leukocytes, and notably granulocytes demonstrated significantly increased early (T2), while monocyte exerted significantly increased late apoptosis (T24 and T48).
Conclusions: Alcohol drinking immediately impacts leukocyte functions, while the impact on monocytes occurs at even later time points. Thus, even in young healthy subjects, alcohol drinking induces immunological changes that are associated with diminished functions of innate immune cells that persist for days.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. COPD is caused by chronic exposure to cigarette smoke and/or other environmental pollutants that are believed to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that gradually disrupt signalling pathways responsible for maintaining lung integrity. Here we identify the antioxidant protein sestrin-2 (SESN2) as a repressor of PDGFRβ signalling, and PDGFRβ signalling as an upstream regulator of alveolar maintenance programmes. In mice, the mutational inactivation of Sesn2 prevents the development of cigarette-smoke-induced pulmonary emphysema by upregulating PDGFRβ expression via a selective accumulation of intracellular superoxide anions (O2−). We also show that SESN2 is overexpressed and PDGFRβ downregulated in the emphysematous lungs of individuals with COPD and to a lesser extent in human lungs of habitual smokers without COPD, implicating a negative SESN2-PDGFRβ interrelationship in the pathogenesis of COPD. Taken together, our results imply that SESN2 could serve as both a biomarker and as a drug target in the clinical management of COPD.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. COPD is caused by chronic exposure to cigarette smoke and/or other environmental pollutants that are believed to induce reactive oxygen species (ROS) that gradually disrupt signalling pathways responsible for maintaining lung integrity. Here we identify the antioxidant protein Sestrin 2 (Sesn2) as a repressor of PDGFRβ signalling and PDGFRβ signalling as an upstream regulator of alveolar maintenance programs. In mice, the mutational inactivation of Sesn2 prevents the development of cigarette-smoke induced pulmonary emphysema by upregulating PDGFRβ expression via a selective accumulation of intracellular superoxide anions (O2-). We also show that SESN2 is overexpressed and PDGFRβ downregulated in the emphysematous lungs of patients with COPD and to a lesser extent in human lungs of habitual smokers without COPD, implicating a negative SESN2/PDGFRβ interrelationship in the pathogenesis of COPD. Taken together, our results imply that SESN2 could serve as both a biomarker and as a drug target in the clinical management of COPD.
In vielen Tumorzellen kommt es zu einer Überexpression des Hypoxie-induzierbaren Faktor 1alpha (HIF-1alpha), was zu einer verbesserten Anpassung des Tumors an die intratumorale Hypoxie sowie zu einer Resistenz gegen Strahlen- und Chemotherapie führt. Je nach Tumor kann HIF-1alpha auf verschiedenen Wegen induziert werden. Eine Möglichkeit ist die Hemmung des Abbaus von HIF-1alpha über das 26S-Proteasom, wie z.B. beim van Hippel-Lindau (VHL)-Syndrom aufgrund einer Mutation im VHL Gen. Patienten mit VHL-Syndrom entwickeln häufig renal clearcell carcinomas (RCCs). In diesen Karzinomen kann HIF-1alpha nicht über den klassischen Weg über das 26S-Proteasom abgebaut werden. Um das Verständnis für alternative Regulationsmechanismen von HIF-1alpha zu erweitern, wurde mit RCC4-Zellen gearbeitet. Im ersten Teil der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass in RCC4-Zellen das HIF-1alpha-Protein unter Hypoxie, in Kombination mit NO, durch die Ca2+-abhängige Protease Calpain abgebaut wird. Unter Hypoxie kam es zu einem Anstieg der Produktion von reaktiven Sauerstoffspezies (ROS) in den Mitochondrien, die mit NO zu Peroxynitrit und weiteren reaktiven Stickstoffintermediaten (RNI) reagierten. Die kombinierte Stimulation der Zellen mit NO und O2- unter Normoxie löste ebenfalls einen Anstieg des intrazellulären Ca2+-Gehaltes und der Calpain-Aktivität aus, was gleichzeitig zu einem reduzierten HIF-1alpha-Proteingehalt führte. Der Calpain-vermittelte HIF-1alpha-Abbau konnte auch in Zellen mit funktionellem VHL-Protein (pVHL) durch NO und O2- ausgelöst werden, wenn der proteasomale Abbau gehemmt war. Diese Ergebnisse beschreiben einen neuen Regulationsmechanismus für das HIF-1alpha-Protein, der unabhängig vom Sauerstoffgehalt und vom 26S-proteasomalen Abbau durch NO/O2- und Calpain erfolgt. Bisher war noch nicht bekannt, dass HIF-1alpha anders als über das 26S Proteasom abgebaut werden kann. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass der Calpain-vermittelte Abbau neben dem proteasomalen Abbau zur Regulierung von HIF 1 beiträgt. In Tumorgeweben stellt nicht nur HIF-1, welches in den Tumorzellen aktiviert ist, einen Selektionsvorteil für die Zellen des Tumorgewebes dar. Ebenso tragen die Zellen des Tumorstromas, darunter die Makrophagen, die in den Tumor einwandern, zur Progression des Tumors durch die Anpassung an die hypoxischen Umgebung bei. Daher wurde im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit die Regulation von HIF-1alpha in den durch konditioniertes Medium von apoptotischen Zellen (KMAZ) aktivierten Makrophagen und der Bedeutung der daraus resultierenden HIF-1-Aktivierung untersucht. Makrophagen, die durch apoptotische Zellen (AZ) aktiviert werden, stellen einen anti-inflammatorischen, pro-angiogenetischen Phänotyp dar, der vergleichbar mit dem der Tumor-assozierten Makrophagen (TAMs) ist. TAMs infiltrieren in das Tumorgewebe und sind essentiell am Übergang von einem avaskulären zu einem invasiven, vaskularisierten und malignen Tumor beteiligt. Unsere Arbeitsgruppe konnte in Vorarbeiten zeigen, dass Makrophagen zunächst Tumorzellen abtöten, wodurch die apoptotischen Tumorzellen Mediatoren (u.a. Sphingosin-1-Phosphat (S1P)) freisetzen, die eine Polarisierung zu einem alternativen, TAM-ähnlichen-Phänotyp der Makrophagen bewirken. Die Inkubation der Makrophagen mit KMAZ führte zu einer Induktion der HIF-1alpha-mRNA und des -Proteins unter Normoxie, was unabhängig von der Proteinstabilität auf eine gesteigerte Proteinsynthese zurückgeführt werden konnte. Weiterhin führte die Induktion von HIF-1alpha zu einer gesteigerten HIF-1-Aktivität. Die Differenzierung von Stammzellen zu CD31+-Endothelzellen wurde durch die Überstände von den durch KMAZ polarisierten Makrophagen HIF-1-abhängig hervorgerufen und ist ein Indiz für die Ausbildung des HIF 1-vermittelten pro-angiogenetischen Phänotyps der Makrophagen. Als Mediatoren, die von den AZ freigesetzt wurden und an der HIF-1alpha-mRNA-Induktion beteiligt sind, konnten S1P und transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-beta) identifiziert werden. Des Weiteren kommt es zu einer Aktivierung des nuclear factor of activated T-cells (NFAT), der an den HIF-1alpha-Promotor bindet und die Transkription induziert. Aufgrund der verstärkten Synthese kommt es zur Akkumulation von HIF-1alpha und zur Aktivierung von HIF-1. Bisher ist die Aktivierung von HIF-1 in TAMs durch die Lokalisation in hypoxischen Arealen erklärt und nicht weiter untersucht worden. Die Erkenntnisse über die Regulierung von HIF-1 durch AZ beschreiben einen neuen Mechanismus, der zur HIF-1-Aktivierung auch unter Normoxie führt. Dabei vermitteln AZ statt der beschriebenen hypoxischen Stabilisierung des HIF-1α-Proteins eine Induktion der HIF-1alpha-mRNA. Weiterhin zeigen die Ergebnisse eine Möglichkeit auf, wie TAMs bereits unter Normoxie zur Angiogenese Induktion in Tumoren beitragen können und erweitern damit das Verständnis, wie die Tumor-unterstützende Wirkung der TAMs vermittelt wird.
Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are derivatives of molecular oxygen (O2) involved in various physiological and pathological processes. In immune cells, ROS are mediators of pivotal functions such as phagocytosis, antigen presentation and recognition, cytolysis as well as phenotypical differentiation. Furthermore, ROS exert immunosuppressive effects on T and natural killer (NK) cells which is of particular importance in the so-called “tumor microenvironment” (TME) of solid tumors. This term describes the heterogenous group of non-malignant cells including tumor-associated fibroblasts and immune cells, vascular cells, bacteria etc. by which cancer cells are surrounded and with whom they engage in functional crosstalk. Importantly, pharmacological targeting of the TME and, specifically, tumor-associated immune cells utilizing immune checkpoint inhibitors - monoclonal antibodies that mitigate immunosuppression - turned out to be a major breakthrough in the treatment of malignant tumors. In this review, we aim to give an overview of the role that ROS produced in tumor-associated immune cells play during initiation, progression and metastatic outgrowth of solid cancers. Finally, we summarize findings on how ROS in the TME could be targeted therapeutically to increase the efficacy of cancer immunotherapy and discuss factors determining therapeutic success of redox modulation in tumors.
Background: A discontinuous dose response relationship is a major characteristic of the anti-inflammatory effects of low-dose X-irradiation therapy. Although recent data indicate an involvement of a variety of molecular mechanisms in these characteristics, the impact of reactive oxygen species (ROS) production to give rise or contribute to these phenomena in endothelial cells (EC) remains elusive.
Material and methods: HUVEC derived immortalized EA.hy926 cells were stimulated by tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α, 20 ng/ml) 4 h before irradiation with doses ranging from 0.3 to 1 Gy. To analyse DNA repair capacity, phospho-histone H2AX foci were assayed at 1 h, 4 h and 24 h after irradiation. ROS production and superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were analysed by fluorometric 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein-diacetate (H2DCFDA) and colorimetric assays. A functional impact of ROS on γH2AX production was analysed by treatment with the scavenger N-acetyl-L-cysteine (NAC).
Results: Irrespective of stimulation by TNF-α, EA.hy926 cells revealed a linear dose response characteristic of γH2AX foci detection at 1 h and 4 h after irradiation. By contrast, we observed a discontinuity in residual γH2AX foci detection at 24 h after irradiation with locally elevated values following a 0.5 Gy exposure that was abolished by inhibition of ROS by NAC. Moreover, SOD protein expression was significantly decreased at doses of 0.5 Gy and 0.7 Gy concomitant with a reduced SOD activity.
Conclusion: These data implicate a non-linear regulation of ROS production and SOD activity in EA.hy926 EC following irradiation with doses < 1 Gy that may contribute to a discontinuous dose-response relationship of residual γH2AX foci detection.
While the importance of the iron-load of lipocalin-2 (Lcn-2) in promoting tumor progression is widely appreciated, underlying molecular mechanisms largely remain elusive. Considering its role as an iron-transporter, we aimed at clarifying iron-loaded, holo-Lcn-2 (hLcn-2)-dependent signaling pathways in affecting renal cancer cell viability. Applying RNA sequencing analysis in renal CAKI1 tumor cells to explore highly upregulated molecular signatures in response to hLcn-2, we identified a cluster of genes (SLC7A11, GCLM, GLS), which are implicated in regulating ferroptosis. Indeed, hLcn-2-stimulated cells are protected from erastin-induced ferroptosis. We also noticed a rapid increase in reactive oxygen species (ROS) with subsequent activation of the antioxidant Nrf2 pathway. However, knocking down Nrf2 by siRNA was not sufficient to induce erastin-dependent ferroptotic cell death in hLcn-2-stimulated tumor cells. In contrast, preventing oxidative stress through N-acetyl-l-cysteine (NAC) supplementation was still able to induce erastin-dependent ferroptotic cell death in hLcn-2-stimulated tumor cells. Besides an oxidative stress response, we noticed activation of the integrated stress response (ISR), shown by enhanced phosphorylation of eIF-2α and induction of ATF4 after hLcn-2 addition. ATF4 knockdown as well as inhibition of the ISR sensitized hLcn-2-treated renal tumor cells to ferroptosis, thus linking the ISR to pro-tumor characteristics of hLcn-2. Our study provides mechanistic details to better understand tumor pro-survival pathways initiated by iron-loaded Lcn-2.