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India has recorded 142,186 deaths over 36 administrative regions placing India third in the world after the US and Brazil for COVID-19 deaths as of 12 December 2020. Studies indicate that south-west monsoon season plays a role in the dynamics of contagious diseases, which tend to peak post-monsoon season. Recent studies show that vitamin D and its primary source Ultraviolet-B (UVB) radiation may play a protective role in mitigating COVID-19 deaths. However, the combined roles of the monsoon season and UVB radiation in COVID-19 in India remain still unclear. In this observational study, we empirically study the respective roles of monsoon season and UVB radiation, whilst further exploring, whether the monsoon season negatively impacts the protective role of UVB radiation in COVID-19 deaths in India. We use a log-linear Mundlak model to a panel dataset of 36 administrative regions in India from 14 March 2020–19 November 2020 (n = 6751). We use the cumulative COVID-19 deaths as the dependent variable. We isolate the association of monsoon season and UVB radiation as measured by Ultraviolet Index (UVI) from other confounding time-constant and time-varying region-specific factors. After controlling for various confounding factors, we observe that a unit increase in UVI and the monsoon season are separately associated with 1.2 percentage points and 7.5 percentage points decline in growth rates of COVID-19 deaths in the long run. These associations translate into substantial relative changes. For example, a permanent unit increase of UVI is associated with a decrease of growth rates of COVID-19 deaths by 33% (= − 1.2 percentage points) However, the monsoon season, mitigates the protective role of UVI by 77% (0.92 percentage points). Our results indicate a protective role of UVB radiation in mitigating COVID-19 deaths in India. Furthermore, we find evidence that the monsoon season is associated with a significant reduction in the protective role of UVB radiation. Our study outlines the roles of the monsoon season and UVB radiation in COVID-19 in India and supports health-related policy decision making in India.
Nitrogen oxides (NOx), especially nitrogen dioxide (NO2), are among the most hazardous forms of air pollution. Tobacco smoke is a main indoor source of NOx, but little information is available about their concentrations in second-hand smoke (SHS), particularly in small indoors. This study presents data of NOx and its main components nitric oxide (NO) and NO2 in SHS emitted by ten different cigarette brands measured in a closed test chamber with a volume of 2.88 m3, similar to the volume of vehicle cabins. The results show substantial increases in NOx concentrations when smoking only one cigarette. The NO2 mean concentrations ranged between 105 and 293 µg/m3, the NO2 peak concentrations between 126 and 357 µg/m3. That means the one-hour mean guideline of 200 µg/m3 for NO2 of the World Health Organization was exceeded up to 47%, respectively 79%. The measured NO2 values show positive correlations with the values for tar, nicotine, and carbon monoxide stated by the cigarette manufacturers. This study provides NO2 concentrations in SHS at health hazard levels. These data give rise to the necessity of health authorities’ measures to inform about and caution against NOx exposure by smoking in indoor rooms.