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Photosystem (PS) I is a huge membrane protein complex which coordinates around 200 co-factors. Upon light excitation a charge separation at the PS I reaction centre is induced which leads to an electron transport across the thylakoid membrane and the generation of redox equivalents needed for several biochemical reactions, e.g. the synthesis of sugars. For higher plants and cyanobacteria the crystal structure of PS I complexes were resolved to resolutions of 4.4 Å and 2.5 Å. Furthermore, supramolecular structures of PS I of eukaryotic algae, mainly of the green line, were obtained recently. However, up to now, no structure of diatoms is available yet. Diatoms are key players in global primary production and derived from a secondary endosymbiosis event. Their chloroplasts are surrounded by four envelope membranes and their thylakoids are evenly arranged in bands of three, i.e. no separation in grana and stroma regions is apparent. In this thesis a protocol was developed to isolate a functional PS I complex of diatoms which can be used for structural analysis by transmissional electron microscopy (TEM). A photosystem I-fucoxanthin chlorophyll protein (PS I-FCP) complex was isolated from the pennate diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum by ion exchange chromatography. Spectroscopic analysis proved that bound Fcp polypeptides function as a light-harvesting complex. An active light energy transfer from Fcp associated pigments, Chl c and fucoxanthin, towards the PS I core was proven by fluorescence spectroscopy. Oxidised minus reduced difference spectroscopy evidenced the activity of the PS I reaction centre P700 and yielded a chlorophyll a/P700 ratio of approximately 200:1. These data indicate that the isolated PS I-FCP complex exceeds the PS I cores from cyanobacteria and higher plants in the numbers of chlorophyll a molecules. Because of the strict conservation of PS I cores among organisms the additional 100 chlorophyll a molecules must either be coordinated by Fcps or function as linker molecules between the Fcp antenna and the PS I core as shown for the PS I-LHC I complex of higher plants. To tell something about the structural organisation, the PS I-FCP complex was compared with its cyanobacterial and higher plant counterparts. Whereas cyanobacterial PS I cores aggregate to trimers, usually without associated antennae, higher plant PS I is a monomer and binds additionally two LHC I heterodimers. BN-PAGE and gel filtration experiments showed that also diatoms contain PS I monomers associated with Fcps as light-harvesting antenna. First TEM studies evidenced these observations. Negatively stained PS I-FCP particles had an increased size compared to PS I cores of other organisms. No PS I trimers or higher oligomers have been found. The calculated diameter and shape of the particles correspond to PS I-LHC I particles obtained from green algae, which also comprise of a higher number of LHC I polypeptides compared to the higher plant x-ray structure. Additionally, the analysis of polypeptides indicates that the PS I associated Fcps differ from the free Fcp pool and also from Fcps of a PS II enriched fraction. The assumption that diatoms harbour just one Fcp antenna that serve both Photosystems equally seems to be wrong. To further study the association of Fcps with the two Photosystems, both complexes plus the free FCP complexes were isolated from the centric diatom Cyclotella meneghiniana. Because of the availability of antibodies directed against specific Fcp polypeptides of Cyclotella the PS I-FCP complex of Phaeodactylum could not be used. A trimeric FCP complex, FCPa, and a higher FCP oligomer, FCPb, have already been described for C. meneghiniana. The latter is assumed to be composed of only Fcp5, whereas the FCPa contains Fcp2 and Fcp6. Biochemical and spectroscopical evidences revealed a different subset of associated Fcp polypeptides within the isolated photosystem complexes. Whereas the PS II associated Fcp antenna resembles FCPa, at least three different Fcp polypeptides are associated with PS I. By re-solubilisation of the PS I complex and a further purification step Fcp polypeptides were partially removed from PS I and both fractions were analysed again by biochemical and spectroscopical means, as well as by HPLC. Thereby Fcp4 and a so far undescribed 17 kDa Fcp were found to be strongly coupled to PS I, whereas another Fcp, presumably Fcp5, is only loosely bound to the PS I core. Thus an association of FCPb and PS I is assumed.
Cellular metabolism can be envisaged by fluorescence lifetime imaging of fluorophores sensitive to specific intracellular factors such as [H+], [Ca2+], [O2], membrane potential, temperature, polarity of the probe environment, and alterations in the conformation and interactions of macromolecules. Lifetime measurements of the probes allow the quantitative determination of the intracellular factors. Fluorescence microscopy taking advantage of time-correlated single photon counting is a novel method that outperforms all other techniques with its single photon sensitivity and picoseconds time resolution. In this work, a time- and space-correlated single photon counting system was established to investigate the behavior of 2-(4-(dimethylamino)styryl)-1-methylpyridinium iodide (DASPMI) in living cells. DASPMI is known to selectively stain mitochondria in living cells. The uptake and fluorescence intensity of DASPMI in mitochondria is a dynamic measure of membrane potential. Hence, an endeavour was made to elucidate the mechanism of DASPMI fluorescence by obtaining spectrally-resolved fluorescence decays in different solvents. A bi-exponential decay model was sufficient to globally describe the wavelength dependent fluorescence in ethanol and chloroform. While in glycerol, a three-exponential decay model was necessary for global analysis. In the polar low-viscous solvent water, a mono-exponential decay model fitted the decay data. The sensitivity of DASPMI fluorescence to solvent viscosity was analysed using various proportions of glycerol/ethanol mixtures. The lifetimes were found to increase with increasing solvent viscosity. The negative amplitudes of the short lifetime component found in chloroform and glycerol at the longer wavelengths validated the formation of new excited state species from the initially excited state. Time-resolved emission spectra in chloroform and glycerol showed a biphasic increase of spectral width and emission maxima. The spectral width had an initial fast increase within 150 ps and a near constant thereafter. A two-state model based on solvation of the initially excited state and further formation of TICT state has been proposed to explain the excited state kinetics and has been substantiated by the de-composition of time-resolved spectra. The knowledge of DASPMI photophysics in a variety of solvents now provides the means of deducing complex physiological parameters of mitochondria from its behavior in living cells. Spatially-resolved fluorescence decays from single mitochondria or only very few organelles of XTH2 cells signified distinctive three-exponential decay kinetics of viscous environment. Based on DASPMI photophysics in a variety of solvents, these lifetimes have been attributed to the fluorescence from locally excited state (LE), intramolecular charge transfer state (ICT) and twisted intramolecular charge transfer (TICT) state. A considerable variation in lifetime among mitochondria of different morphology and within single cell was evident corresponding to the high physiological variations within single cells. Considerable shortening of the short lifetime component (τ1) under high membrane potential condition, such as in the presence of ATP and/or substrate, was similar to quenching and dramatic decrease of lifetime in polar solvents. Under these conditions τ2 and τ3 increased with decreasing contribution. Upon treatment with ionophore nigericin, hyperpolarization of mitochondria resulted in remarkable shortening of τ1 from 159 ps to 38 ps. Inhibiting respiration by cyanide resulted in notable increase of mean lifetime and decrease of mitochondrial fluorescence. Increase of DASPMI fluorescence on conditions elevating mitochondrial membrane potential has been attributed to uptake according Nernst distributions, to de-localisation of π electrons, quenching processes of the methyl pyridinium moiety and restricted torsional dynamics at the mitochondrial inner membrane. Accordingly, determination of anisotropy in DASPMI stained mitochondria in living XTH2 cells, revealed dependence of anisotropy on membrane potential. Such changes in anisotropy attributed to restriction of the torsional dynamics about the flexible single bonds neighboring the olefinic double bond revealed the previously known sub-mitochondrial zones with higher membrane potential along its length. Membrane-potential-dependent changes in anisotropy have further been demonstrated in senescent chick embryo fibroblasts. In conclusion, spectroscopic observations of excited-state kinetics of DASPMI in solvents and its behavior in living cells had revealed for the first time its localisation, mechanism of voltage sensitive fluorescence and its membrane-potential-dependent anisotropy in living cells. The simultaneous dependence of DASPMI photophysics on mitochondrial inner membrane viscosity and transmembrane potential has been highlighted.
Untersuchung der Konformation und Dynamik von RNA mit Hilfe fluoreszierender Farbstoffmoleküle
(2010)
Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Untersuchung der konformationellen und elektronischen Eigenschaften sowie der Dynamik verschiedener RNA-Systeme. Zur Durchführung dieser Experimente wurde zusätzlich zu bereits vorhandenen statischen und zeitaufgelösten Absorptionsspektrometern im Rahmen dieser Arbeit eine Apparatur zur Messung von Fluoreszenzlebensdauern entwickelt, die durch die integrative Verwendung zweier verschiedener, etablierter Technologien (TCSPC und Aufkonvertierung) über einen weiten Zeitbereich von 9 Größenordnungen (100 fs - 0,1 ms) operiert. Mit diesem Aufbau konnten neben den RNA-Studien wichtige Beiträge zum Verständnis der Isomerisierung eines Retinalproteins, des Transportprozess des Membrantransportproteins TbSMR und der im Infraroten liegenden Fluoreszenz des Radikalkations von Astaxanthin gewonnen werden. Der Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit liegt auf der Untersuchung verschiedener RNA-Systeme: So werden die optischen Eigenschaften einer 1-Ethinylpyren-modifzierten RNA-Adeninbase allein und in RNA-Strängen eingebunden untersucht. Statische Fluoreszenzmessungen zeigen einen ausgeprägten Ladungstransfercharakter des Chromophors und eine generell große Wechselwirkung zwischen Ethinylpyren und Adenin, die in einer substanziellen Änderung der optischen Eigenschaften des Pyrens resultiert. Die Untersuchung der schnellen Photodynamik von Pyrenadenin zeigt zudem eine Verringerung der Lebensdauer von Pyren um etwa 2 Größenordnungen. Pyrenadenin zeigt sowohl Fluoreszenz eines neutralen (100-200 ps), als auch eines energetisch tiefer liegenden Ladungstransferzustands (1-2 ns). Die Formationszeit des Ladungstransferzustandes fällt mit steigender Polarität des Lösemittels. Eingebunden in Modell-RNA-Stränge ist Fluoreszenzquantenausbeute des Chromophors ein deutlicher Indikator für seine Interkalation. Nur in der stabileren Umgebung von GC-Basenpaaren ist das Pyren in der Lage, sich dauerhaft innerhalb des Duplex aufzuhalten, während in einer flexibleren AU-Umgebung eine Position außerhalb des RNA-Duplex präferiert wird. Transiente Absorptionsmessungen zeigen, dass die Photophysik des in RNA eingebundenen Pyrenadenins nur kleine Variationen im Vergleich zur Photophysik des Labels allein aufweist. Die deutliche Abnahme der Quantenausbeute des interkalierten Chromophors geht hauptsächlich auf Kosten der langlebigeren Ladungstransferfluoreszenz, so dass interkaliertes Pyren insgesamt schneller in den Grundzustand zurückkehrt als nicht interkaliertes. Mit Hilfe eines doppelt modifizierten Duplex, bei dem sich jeweils ein Farbstoff an einem der beiden Stränge befindet, kann nachgewiesen werden, dass aufgrund von Exzimerwechselwirkungen eine Verschiebung des Fluoreszenzmaximums von 35 nm auftritt. Kurzzeitspektroskopische Messungen zeigen Signale, die als Superposition von Monomeren und Exzimeren interpretiert werden können, wobei die Lebensdauer des letzteren mit 18,5 ns die der Monomerkomponente um ein Vielfaches übertrifft. Ein weiterer Teil dieser Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit einer Studie zur Bindung des fluoreszenten Liganden Tetrazyklin an das Tetrazyklin bindende Aptamer. Hier wird auf Basis verschiedener Mutanten mit Hilfe des TCSPC eine Analyse der Stabilität der Bindetasche sowie mit der Stopped-Flow-Methode eine Beobachtung des Bindungsprozesses durchgeführt. Insgesamt folgt die Bindung des Tetrazyklins an das Aptamer einer zweistufigen Kinetik, deren zweiter Schritt irreversibel ist. Die Bindung läuft, verglichen mit anderen Aptameren, sehr schnell ab. Während die Mutationen von A13 und A50,die direkte Kontakte zum Substrat bilden, nur einen leichten Einfluss auf beide Bindungsschritte ausüben, führt eine Mutation der für die Präformation verantwortlichen Base A9 zu einer Verlangsamung des Bindungsprozesses um mehr als einen Faktor 20 durch eine immens gesteigerten Rückreaktionsrate des ersten Bindungsschritts. Hieraus lässt sich schließen, dass bei fehlender Präformation des Aptamers nur wenige Tetrazyklinmoleküle ein für vollständige Bindung geeignetes Aptamer vorfinden. Die Bindung an A13 und A50 geschieht bereits im ersten Schritt des Bindungsprozesses. Ferner konnte anhand von Lebensdauermessungen gezeigt werden, dass nach dem Wildtyp die Mutante A9G die stabilste Bindetasche aufwies. Das Fehlen eines direkten Kontaktes wirkt sich deutlich stärker aus. Insbesondere führt die Abwesenheit der Fixierung des Gegenions durch A50 zu der instabilsten Bindetasche. Wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt wird, ist die zeitaufgelöste optische Spektroskopie insbesondere in Verbindung mit fluoreszierenden Molekülen ein ausgezeichnetes Mittel zur Beobachtung von Struktur und Dynamik von RNA. Die Empfindlichkeit von Fluoreszenz auf die Veränderung der Umgebung des Chromophors erlaubt es, Konformationsdynamik und elektronische Konfigurationen in Echtzeit zu beobachten.