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Intrinsic motivation, the causal mechanism for spontaneous exploration and curiosity, is a central concept in developmental psychology. It has been argued to be a crucial mechanism for open-ended cognitive development in humans, and as such has gathered a growing interest from developmental roboticists in the recent years. The goal of this paper is threefold. First, it provides a synthesis of the different approaches of intrinsic motivation in psychology. Second, by interpreting these approaches in a computational reinforcement learning framework, we argue that they are not operational and even sometimes inconsistent. Third, we set the ground for a systematic operational study of intrinsic motivation by presenting a formal typology of possible computational approaches. This typology is partly based on existing computational models, but also presents new ways of conceptualizing intrinsic motivation. We argue that this kind of computational typology might be useful for opening new avenues for research both in psychology and developmental robotics.
Although much is known about the critical importance of active verbal rehearsal for successful recall, knowledge about the mechanisms of rehearsal and their respective development in children is very limited. To be able to rehearse several items together, these items have to be available, or, if presented and rehearsed previously, retrieved from memory. Therefore, joint rehearsal of several items may itself be considered recall. Accordingly, by analyzing free recall, one cannot only gain insight into how recall and rehearsal unfold, but also into how principles that govern children’s recall govern children’s rehearsal. Over a period of three and a half years (beginning at grade 3) 54 children were longitudinally assessed seven times on several overt rehearsal free recall trials. A first set of analyses on recall revealed significant age-related increases in the primacy effect and an age-invariant recency effect. In the middle portion of the list, wave-shaped recall characteristics emerged and increased with age, indicating grouping of the list into subsequences. In a second set of analyses, overt rehearsal behavior was decomposed into distinct rehearsal sets. Analyses of these sets revealed that the distribution of rehearsals within each set resembled the serial position curves with one- or two-item primacy and recency effects and wave-shaped rehearsal patterns in between. In addition, rehearsal behavior throughout the list was characterized by a decreasing tendency to begin rehearsal sets with the first list item. This result parallels the phenomenon of beginning recall with the first item on short lists and with the last item on longer lists.
Cognitive modeling studies in adults have established that visual working memory (WM) capacity depends on the representational precision, as well as its variability from moment to moment. By contrast, visuospatial WM performance in children has been typically indexed by response accuracy—a binary measure that provides less information about precision with which items are stored. Here, we aimed at identifying whether and how children’s WM performance depends on the spatial precision and its variability over time in real-world contexts. Using smartphones, 110 Grade 3 and Grade 4 students performed a spatial WM updating task three times a day in school and at home for four weeks. Measures of spatial precision (i.e., Euclidean distance between presented and reported location) were used for hierarchical modeling to estimate variability of spatial precision across different time scales. Results demonstrated considerable within-person variability in spatial precision across items within trials, from trial to trial and from occasion to occasion within days and from day to day. In particular, item-to-item variability was systematically increased with memory load and lowered with higher grade. Further, children with higher precision variability across items scored lower in measures of fluid intelligence. These findings emphasize the important role of transient changes in spatial precision for the development of WM.
Das Ziel der Studie bestand einerseits in der Untersuchung der Zusammenhänge zwischen der sich im Vorschulalter entwickelnden Theory of Mind und dem sich ebenfalls zu diesem Zeitpunkt ausbildenden episodischen Gedächtnis unter der Berücksichtigung verschiedener potentieller Einflussfaktoren, wie beispielsweise den sprachlichen und exekutiven Fähigkeiten der Kinder. Auf der anderen Seite sollten zudem die Veränderungen innerhalb der einzelnen Konstrukte im zeitlichen Verlauf zwischen dem vierten und fünften Lebensjahr abgebildet werden. Dazu wurden 40 Kindern an zwei im Abstand von einem Jahr stattfindenden Erhebungszeitpunkten verschiedenste Aufgaben zur Erfassung ihrer jeweiligen Fähigkeiten in den unterschiedlichen kognitiven Bereichen vorgelegt. Das Durchschnittsalter der Kinder zum Zeitpunkt der ersten Messung betrug M = 38.73 Monate (SD = 2.84) und beim zweiten Messzeitpunkt M = 51.03 Monate (SD = 2.89). Anhand der erhobenen Daten konnte gezeigt werden, dass neben dem Zeitverständnis vor allem die Fähigkeit der dreijährigen Kinder zur Perspektivübernahme einen signifikanten Beitrag zur Erklärung ihrer späteren Kompetenzen auf dem Gebiet des episodischen Gedächtnisses leistet. Weiterhin konnten mittels der zwei Messzeitpunkte sowohl die quantitativen als auch qualitativen Veränderungen innerhalb der unterschiedlichen Theory of Mind-Kompetenzen bzw. innerhalb des sich wandelnden Repräsentationsverständnisses abgebildet werden. Zudem konnte ebenfalls die bedeutende Rolle der Sprache als optimales Medium zum verbalen Austausch über die verschiedenen Perspektiven von sich und anderen sowie über vergangene, gegenwärtige oder zukünftige Erlebnisse konstatiert werden. Im Gegensatz zu den Befunden anderer Studien scheint hingegen den vorliegenden Befunden nach dem Einfluss der exekutiven Fähigkeiten auf die Theory of Mind-Kompetenzen der Kinder keine so grundlegende Bedeutung zuzukommen.