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GTP cyclohydrolase (GCH1) governs de novo synthesis of the enzyme cofactor, tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), which is essential for biogenic amine production, bioactive lipid metabolism and redox coupling of nitric oxide synthases. Overproduction of BH4 via upregulation of GCH1 in sensory neurons is associated with nociceptive hypersensitivity in rodents, and neuron‐specific GCH1 deletion normalizes nociception. The translational relevance is revealed by protective polymorphisms of GCH1 in humans, which are associated with a reduced chronic pain. Because myeloid cells constitute a major non‐neuronal source of BH4 that may contribute to BH4‐dependent phenotypes, we studied here the contribution of myeloid‐derived BH4 to pain and itch in lysozyme M Cre‐mediated GCH1 knockout (LysM‐GCH1−/−) and overexpressing mice (LysM‐GCH1‐HA). Unexpectedly, knockout or overexpression in myeloid cells had no effect on nociceptive behaviour, but LysM‐driven GCH1 knockout reduced, and its overexpression increased the scratching response in Compound 48/80 and hydroxychloroquine‐evoked itch models, which involve histamine and non‐histamine dependent signalling pathways. Mechanistically, GCH1 overexpression increased BH4, nitric oxide and hydrogen peroxide, and these changes were associated with increased release of histamine and serotonin and degranulation of mast cells. LysM‐driven GCH1 knockout had opposite effects, and pharmacologic inhibition of GCH1 provided even stronger itch suppression. Inversely, intradermal BH4 provoked scratching behaviour in vivo and BH4 evoked an influx of calcium in sensory neurons. Together, these loss‐ and gain‐of‐function experiments suggest that itch in mice is contributed by BH4 release plus BH4‐driven mediator release from myeloid immune cells, which leads to activation of itch‐responsive sensory neurons.
Background: Inflammation is essential for the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis (MS). While the immune system contribution to the development of neurological symptoms has been intensively studied, inflammatory biomarkers for mental symptoms such as depression are poorly understood in the context of MS. Here, we test if depression correlates with peripheral and central inflammation markers in MS patients as soon as the diagnosis is established. Methods: Forty-four patients were newly diagnosed with relapsing-remitting MS, primary progressive MS or clinically isolated syndrome. Age, gender, EDSS, C-reactive protein (CRP), albumin, white blood cells count in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF WBC), presence of gadolinium enhanced lesions (GE) on T1-weighted images and total number of typical MS lesion locations were included in linear regression models to predict Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) score and the depression dimension of the Symptoms Checklist 90-Revised (SCL90RD). Results: CRP elevation and GE predicted significantly BDI (CRP: p = 0.007; GE: p = 0.019) and SCL90RD (CRP: p = 0.004; GE: p = 0.049). The combination of both factors resulted in more pronounced depressive symptoms (p = 0.04). CSF WBC and EDSS as well as the other variables were not correlated with depressive symptoms. Conclusions: CRP elevation and GE are associated with depressive symptoms in newly diagnosed MS patients. These markers can be used to identify MS patients exhibiting a high risk for the development of depressive symptoms in early phases of the disease.
In this comprehensive review, we will dissect the impact of research on proteoglycans focusing on recent developments involved in their synthesis, degradation, and interactions, while critically assessing their usefulness in various biological processes. The emerging roles of proteoglycans in global infections, specifically the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic, and their rising functions in regenerative medicine and biomaterial science have significantly affected our current view of proteoglycans and related compounds. The roles of proteoglycans in cancer biology and their potential use as a next-generation protein-based adjuvant therapy to combat cancer is also emerging as a constructive and potentially beneficial therapeutic strategy. We will discuss the role of proteoglycans in selected and emerging areas of proteoglycan science, such as neurodegenerative diseases, autophagy, angiogenesis, cancer, infections and their impact on mammalian diseases.
Class I and II histone deacetylases (HDAC) are considered important regulators of immunity and inflammation. Modulation of HDAC expression and activity is associated with altered inflammatory responses but reports are controversial and the specific impact of single HDACs is not clear. We examined class I and II HDACs in TLR-4 signaling pathways in murine macrophages with a focus on IκB kinase epsilon (IKKε) which has not been investigated in this context before. Therefore, we applied the pan-HDAC inhibitors (HDACi) trichostatin A (TSA) and suberoylanilide hydroxamic acid (SAHA) as well as HDAC-specific siRNA. Administration of HDACi reduced HDAC activity and decreased expression of IKKε although its acetylation was increased. Other pro-inflammatory genes (IL-1β, iNOS, TNFα) also decreased while COX-2 expression increased. HDAC 2, 3 and 4, respectively, might be involved in IKKε and iNOS downregulation with potential participation of NF-κB transcription factor inhibition. Suppression of HDAC 1–3, activation of NF-κB and RNA stabilization mechanisms might contribute to increased COX-2 expression. In conclusion, our results indicate that TSA and SAHA exert a number of histone- and HDAC-independent functions. Furthermore, the data show that different HDAC enzymes fulfill different functions in macrophages and might lead to both pro- and anti-inflammatory effects which have to be considered in therapeutic approaches.
The sphingolipid sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) is produced by sphingosine kinases to either signal through intracellular targets or to activate a family of specific G-protein-coupled receptors (S1PR). S1P levels are usually low in peripheral tissues compared to the vasculature, forming a gradient that mediates lymphocyte trafficking. However, S1P levels rise during inflammation in peripheral tissues, thereby affecting resident or recruited immune cells, including macrophages. As macrophages orchestrate initiation and resolution of inflammation, the sphingosine kinase/S1P/S1P-receptor axis emerges as an important determinant of macrophage function in the pathogenesis of inflammatory diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, and infection. In this review, we therefore summarize the current knowledge how S1P affects macrophage biology.
Background: Polytraumatized patients undergo a strong immunological stress upon insult. Phagocytes (granulocytes and monocytes) play a substantial role in immunological defense against bacteria, fungi and yeast, and in the clearance of cellular debris after tissue injury. We have reported a reduced monocytes phagocytic activity early after porcine polytrauma before. However, it is unknown if both phagocyte types undergo those functional alterations, and if there is a pathogen-specific phagocytic behavior. We characterized the phagocytic activity and capacity of granulocytes and monocytes after polytrauma.
Methods: Eight pigs (Sus scrofa) underwent polytrauma consisting of lung contusion, liver laceration, tibial fracture and hemorrhagic shock with fluid resuscitation and fracture fixation with external fixator. Intensive care treatment including mechanical ventilation for 72 h followed. Phagocytic activity and capacity were investigated using an in vitro ex vivo whole blood stimulation phagocytosis assays before trauma, after surgery, 24, 48, and 72 h after trauma. Blood samples were stimulated with Phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate and incubated with FITC-labeled E. coli, S. aureus or S. cerevisiae for phagocytosis assessment by flow cytometry.
Results: Early polytrauma-induced significant increase of granulocytes and monocytes declined to baseline values within 24 h. Percentage of E. coli-phagocytizing granulocytes significantly decreased after polytrauma and during further intensive care treatment, while their capacity significantly increased. Interestingly, both granulocytic phagocytic activity and capacity of S. aureus significantly decreased after trauma, although a recovery was observed after 24 h and yet was followed by another decrease. The percentage of S. cerevisiae-phagocytizing granulocytes significantly increased after 24 h, while their impaired capacity after surgery and 72 h later was detected. Monocytic E. coli-phagocytizing percentage did not change, while their capacity increased after 24–72 h. After a significant decrease in S. aureus-phagocytizing monocytes after surgery, a significant increase after 24 and 48 h was observed without capacity alterations. No significant changes in S. cerevisiae-phagocytizing monocytes occurred, but their capacity dropped 48 and 72 h.
Conclusion: Phagocytic activity and capacity of granulocytes and monocytes follow a different pattern and significantly change within 72 h after polytrauma. Both phagocytic activity and capacity show significantly different alterations depending on the pathogen strain, thus potentially indicating at certain and possibly more relevant infection causes after polytrauma.
The aging process is characterized by a chronic, low‐grade inflammatory state, termed “inflammaging.” It has been suggested that macrophage activation plays a key role in the induction and maintenance of this state. In the present study, we aimed to elucidate the mechanisms responsible for aging‐associated changes in the myeloid compartment of mice. The aging phenotype, characterized by elevated cytokine production, was associated with a dysfunction of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis and diminished serum corticosteroid levels. In particular, the concentration of corticosterone, the major active glucocorticoid in rodents, was decreased. This could be explained by an impaired expression and activity of 11β‐hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 (11β‐HSD1), an enzyme that determines the extent of cellular glucocorticoid responses by reducing the corticosteroids cortisone/11‐dehydrocorticosterone to their active forms cortisol/corticosterone, in aged macrophages and peripheral leukocytes. These changes were accompanied by a downregulation of the glucocorticoid receptor target gene glucocorticoid‐induced leucine zipper (GILZ) in vitro and in vivo. Since GILZ plays a central role in macrophage activation, we hypothesized that the loss of GILZ contributed to the process of macroph‐aging. The phenotype of macrophages from aged mice was indeed mimicked in young GILZ knockout mice. In summary, the current study provides insight into the role of glucocorticoid metabolism and GILZ regulation during aging.
The miRNA biogenesis is tightly regulated to avoid dysfunction and consequent disease development. Here, we describe modulation of miRNA processing as a novel noncanonical function of the 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO) enzyme in monocytic cells. In differentiated Mono Mac 6 (MM6) cells, we found an in situ interaction of 5-LO with Dicer, a key enzyme in miRNA biogenesis. RNA sequencing of small noncoding RNAs revealed a functional impact, knockout of 5-LO altered the expression profile of several miRNAs. Effects of 5-LO could be observed at two levels. qPCR analyses thus indicated that (a) 5-LO promotes the transcription of the evolutionarily conserved miR-99b/let-7e/miR-125a cluster and (b) the 5-LO-Dicer interaction downregulates the processing of pre-let-7e, resulting in an increase in miR-125a and miR-99b levels by 5-LO without concomitant changes in let-7e levels in differentiated MM6 cells. Our observations suggest that 5-LO regulates the miRNA profile by modulating the Dicer-mediated processing of distinct pre-miRNAs. 5-LO inhibits the formation of let-7e which is a well-known inducer of cell differentiation, but promotes the generation of miR-99b and miR-125a known to induce cell proliferation and the maintenance of leukemic stem cell functions.
Nach schwerem Trauma wird häufig eine immunologische Dysregulation beobachtet, die durch das Vorliegen einer überschießenden Inflammationsreaktion bei gleichzeitig bestehender Immunsuppression gekennzeichnet ist. Diese inadäquate Immunreaktion wird für das Auftreten posttraumatischer Komplikationen wie Systemic Inflammatory Response Syndrome (SIRS), Sepsis oder Multiorganversagen mitverantwortlich gemacht. Eine entscheidende Rolle bei den posttraumatisch ablaufenden immunologischen Vorgängen scheint dabei den Monozyten als Teil des unspezifischen Immunsystems zuzukommen. Ziel der vorliegenden Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Monozytenaktivität nach Trauma unterschiedlicher Ausprägung und Schwere sowie ihre Korrelation mit an der posttraumatischen immunologischen Dysregulation potentiell beteiligten Mediatoren wie Interleukin-6 und Interleukin-10. Im Rahmen dieser 12-monatigen prospektiven klinischen Studie wurde von insgesamt 57 Patienten bei Eintreffen im Schockraum sowie an fünf Folgetagen Vollblut abgenommen. Bei 18 ausgewählten Patienten erfolgten weitere Blutentnahmen bis Tag 14. Die Patienten wurden nach Verletzungsschwere mittels Injury Severity Score (ISS) in fünf Gruppen eingeteilt und einer Kontrollgruppe gegenübergestellt. Die Blutproben wurden zunächst für 24 Stunden mit bakteriellem Lipopolysaccharid (LPS) inkubiert. Schließlich erfolgte aus den gewonnenen Proben mittels ELISA die Messung der Konzentration von Interleukin-1β als Surrogatparameter für die Aktivierbarkeit der Monozyten. Des Weiteren erfolgte die Bestimmung der Konzentrationen von Interleukin-6, Interleukin-10 und CRP im Patientenserum. Die Monozytenaktivität war bereits bei leicht verletzten Patienten mit einem ISS von eins bis acht Punkten signifikant gegenüber der Kontrollgruppe supprimiert. Diese Suppression setzte sich mit steigender Verletzungsschwere signifikant fort. Des Weiteren zeigte sich bereits bei Eintreffen der Patienten im Schockraum in allen Gruppen eine signifikante Suppression der stimulierten monozytären IL-1β-Produktion gegenüber der Kontrollgruppe. In der Gruppe der Leichtverletzten erreichte die IL-1β-Konzentration im Überstand bereits am zweiten Tag nach Trauma wieder die Werte gesunder Probanden, während in Gruppe II an Tag fünf, in Gruppe IV und V erst an Tag sechs ein partieller, nicht signifikanter Anstieg der Werte beobachtet werden konnte. Der Vergleich zwischen männlichen und weiblichen Patienten zeigte eine signifikante Suppression der stimulierten IL-1β-Produktion im weiblichen Kollektiv. Der Vergleich von Patienten mit posttraumatischer Entwicklung eines SIRS und Patienten ohne SIRS-Nachweis zeigte in der SIRS-Gruppe eine signifikante Reduktion der Monozytenaktivität, wobei die SIRS-Patienten im Durchschnitt allerdings auch schwerer verletzt waren. Der Vergleich der stimulierten Monozytenaktivität mit den Serumkonzentrationen von IL-6 und IL-10 zeigte für IL-6 einen der stimulierten IL-1β-Produktion entgegen- gesetzten, signifikanten Konzentrationsanstieg in Abhängigkeit von der Verletzungsschwere. Die Serumkonzentrationen von IL-10 waren erst bei Schwerstverletzten mit einem ISS ≥ 25 Punkten signifikant erhöht. Die Untersuchung der CRP-Serumkonzentration in Abhängigkeit von der Verletzungsschwere zeigte von Gruppe I bis III einen signifikanten Anstieg. Ab einem ISS von ≥ 16 Punkten war jedoch keine signifikante Konzentrationserhöhung des Serum-CRP mehr zu verzeichnen. Die vorliegende Studie zeigt, dass es bereits bei leichten Verletzungen zu einer Suppression des unspezifischen Immunsystems und hierbei insbesondere der Monozytenaktivität kommt. Diese Immunsuppression lässt sich bereits kurz nach dem Trauma, bei Eintreffen in der Klinik, nachweisen. Die Ursache für die wider Erwarten deutliche Reduktion der Monozytenaktivität bei weiblichen gegenüber männlichen Patienten konnte nicht geklärt werden. Eine mögliche Ursache könnte das fortgeschrittene, postmenopausale Alter zahlreicher Patientinnen sein. Aufgrund seiner geringer ausgeprägten Korrelation mit der Verletzungsschwere erwies sich die Serumkonzentration von CRP im Vergleich mit der stimulierten IL-1β-Produktion und der IL-6-Serumkonzentration als der für diese Untersuchung weniger geeignete Parameter.
Atherosclerosis and its sequelae, such as myocardial infarction and stroke, are the leading cause of death worldwide. Vascular endothelial cells (EC) play a critical role in vascular homeostasis and disease. Atherosclerosis as well as its independent risk factors including diabetes, obesity, and aging, are hallmarked by endothelial activation and dysfunction. Metabolic pathways have emerged as key regulators of many EC functions, including angiogenesis, inflammation, and barrier function, processes which are deregulated during atherogenesis. In this review, we highlight the role of glucose, fatty acid, and amino acid metabolism in EC functions during physiological and pathological states, specifically atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity and aging.