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The view that tumors consist of a homogenous mass of clonal derived cells has dramatically changed in recent years. Tumors harbor an enormous heterogeneity of cells with distinct capabilities and functions. The heterogeneity originates from a differentiation hierarchy of tumor cells, similar to normal tissue organization of stem-cell driven organs, but also from clonal succession of subpopulations by randomly acquired genetic mutations and epigenetic changes. Both scenarios are certainly not mutually exclusive, and also stem and progenitor cells underlie mutational selection. Intratumoral heterogeneity is a major challenge for cancer treatment and disease monitoring. Functional studies revealed that not all tumor cells have the same ability to initiate tumor growth upon transplantation in receptive animal models. The tumorinitiating cells (TICs) were called cancer stem cells due to their similarities to normal tissue stem cells in their molecular and functional properties. They can renew themselves long-term and give rise to tumor cells lacking cancer stem cell properties. However, it is worth stressing here that TICs do not necessarily originate from stem cells, but may have regained stem cell properties. TICs caught major attention since they may provide important steps in the progression of malignant diseases, such as epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition, dissemination, long-term persistence, therapy resistance, and relapse of the disease. The prospective identification of TICs using distinct surface markers would allow their molecular and functional characterization, the design of detection methods for diagnosis and prognosis, and the development of targeted therapies against these detrimental cells. While functional evidence for the existence of TICs were provided for many tumor entities, their marker profile still remains largely undefined and controversial. ...
Numerous cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions within the bone marrow microenvironment enable the controlled lifelong self-renewal and progeny of hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells (HSPCs). On the cellular level, this highly mutual interaction is granted by cell adhesion molecules (CAMs) integrating differentiation, proliferation, and pro-survival signals from the surrounding microenvironment to the inner cell. However, cell–cell and cell–matrix interactions are also critically involved during malignant transformation of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. It has become increasingly apparent that leukemia-associated gene products, such as activated tyrosine kinases and fusion proteins resulting from chromosomal translocations, directly regulate the activation status of adhesion molecules, thereby directing the leukemic phenotype. These observations imply that interference with adhesion molecule function represents a promising treatment strategy to target pre-leukemic and leukemic lesions within the bone marrow niche. Focusing on myeloid leukemia, we provide a current overview of the mechanisms by which leukemogenic gene products hijack control of cellular adhesion to subsequently disturb normal hematopoiesis and promote leukemia development.
Evasion of apoptosis, for example, by inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins, contributes to treatment resistance and poor outcome in acute myeloid leukemia (AML). Here we identify a novel synergistic interaction between the small-molecule second mitochondria-derived activator of caspases (Smac) mimetic BV6, which antagonizes X-linked IAP, cellular IAP (cIAP)1 and cIAP2, and the demethylating agents 5-azacytidine or 5-aza-2′-deoxycytidine (DAC) to induce cell death in AML cells, including apoptosis-resistant cells. Calculation of combination index (CI) confirms that this drug combination is highly synergistic (CI 0.02–0.4). In contrast, BV6 and DAC at equimolar concentrations do not cause synergistic toxicity against normal peripheral blood lymphocytes, pointing to some tumor cell selectivity. Molecular studies reveal that BV6 and DAC cooperate to trigger the activation of caspases, mitochondrial perturbations and DNA fragmentation, consistent with apoptotic cell death. However, the broad-range caspase inhibitor N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone (zVAD.fmk) fails to protect against BV6/DAC-induced cell death and even significantly increases the percentage of Annexin-V/propidium iodide double-positive cells. Importantly, BV6/DAC-induced cell death in the presence of zVAD.fmk is significantly reduced by pharmacological inhibition of key components of necroptosis signaling, that is, receptor-interacting protein (RIP) 1 using necrostatin-1 or mixed lineage kinase domain-like protein (MLKL) using necrosulfonamide. This indicates a switch from BV6/DAC-induced cell death from apoptosis to necroptosis upon caspase inhibition. Thus, BV6 cooperates with demethylating agents to induce cell death in AML cells and circumvents apoptosis resistance via a switch to necroptosis as an alternative mode of cell death. The identification of a novel synergism of BV6 and demethylating agents has important implications for the development of new treatment strategies for AML.
Allogeneic stem cell transplantation (allo-SCT) has become an important treatment modality for patients with high-risk acute myeloid leukemia (AML) and is also under investigation for soft tissue sarcomas. The therapeutic success is still limited by minimal residual disease (MRD) status ultimately leading to patients’ relapse. Adoptive donor lymphocyte infusions based on MRD status using IL-15-expanded cytokine-induced killer (CIK) cells may prevent relapse without causing graft-versus-host-disease (GvHD). To generate preclinical data we developed mouse models to study anti-leukemic- and anti-tumor-potential of CIK cells in vivo. Immunodeficient mice (NOD/SCID/IL-2Rγc−, NSG) were injected intravenously with human leukemic cell lines THP-1, SH-2 and with human rhabdomyosarcoma (RMS) cell lines RH41 and RH30 at minimal doses required for leukemia or tumor engraftment. Mice transplanted with THP-1 or RH41 cells were randomly assigned for analysis of CIK cell treatment. Organs of mice were analyzed by flow cytometry as well as quantitative polymerase chain reaction for engraftment of malignant cells and CIK cells. Potential of CIK cells to induce GvHD was determined by histological analysis. Tissues of the highest degree of THP-1 cell expansion included bone marrow followed by liver, lung, spleen, peripheral blood (PB), and brain. RH30 and RH41 engraftment mainly took place in liver and lung, but was also detectable in spleen and PB. In spite of delayed CIK cell expansion compared with malignant cells, CIK cells injected at equal amounts were sufficient for significant reduction of RH41 cells, whereas against fast-expanding THP-1 cells 250 times more CIK than THP-1 cells were needed to achieve comparable results. Our preclinical in vivo mouse models showed a reliable 100% engraftment of malignant cells which is essential for analysis of anti-cancer therapy. Furthermore our data demonstrated that IL-15-activated CIK cells have potent cytotoxic capacity against AML and RMS cells without causing GvHD.
Clonal hematopoiesis of indeterminate potential (CHIP) is caused by recurrent somatic mutations leading to clonal blood cell expansion. However, direct evidence of the fitness of CHIP-mutated human hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) in blood reconstitution is lacking. Because myeloablative treatment and transplantation enforce stress on HSCs, we followed 81 patients with solid tumors or lymphoid diseases undergoing autologous stem cell transplantation (ASCT) for the development of CHIP. We found a high incidence of CHIP (22%) after ASCT with a high mean variant allele frequency (VAF) of 10.7%. Most mutations were already present in the graft, albeit at lower VAFs, demonstrating a selective reconstitution advantage of mutated HSCs after ASCT. However, patients with CHIP mutations in DNA-damage response genes showed delayed neutrophil reconstitution. Thus, CHIP-mutated stem and progenitor cells largely gain on clone size upon ASCT-related blood reconstitution, leading to an increased future risk of CHIP-associated complications.
Response to upfront azacitidine in juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia in the AZA-JMML-001 trial
(2021)
Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) is the only curative therapy for most children with juvenile myelomonocytic leukemia (JMML). Novel therapies controlling the disorder prior to HSCT are needed. We conducted a phase 2, multicenter, open-label study to evaluate the safety and antileukemic activity of azacitidine monotherapy prior to HSCT in newly diagnosed JMML patients. Eighteen patients enrolled from September 2015 to November 2017 were treated with azacitidine (75 mg/m2) administered IV once daily on days 1 to 7 of a 28-day cycle. The primary end point was the number of patients with clinical complete remission (cCR) or clinical partial remission (cPR) after 3 cycles of therapy. Pharmacokinetics, genome-wide DNA-methylation levels, and variant allele frequencies of leukemia-specific index mutations were also analyzed. Sixteen patients completed 3 cycles and 5 patients completed 6 cycles. After 3 cycles, 11 patients (61%) were in cPR and 7 (39%) had progressive disease. Six of 16 patients (38%) who needed platelet transfusions were transfusion-free after 3 cycles. All 7 patients with intermediate- or low-methylation signatures in genome-wide DNA-methylation studies achieved cPR. Seventeen patients received HSCT; 14 (82%) were leukemia-free at a median follow-up of 23.8 months (range, 7.0-39.3 months) after HSCT. Azacitidine was well tolerated and plasma concentration-–time profiles were similar to observed profiles in adults. In conclusion, azacitidine monotherapy is a suitable option for children with newly diagnosed JMML. Although long-term safety and efficacy remain to be fully elucidated in this population, these data demonstrate that azacitidine provides valuable clinical benefit to JMML patients prior to HSCT. This trial was registered at www.clinicaltrials.gov as #NCT02447666.
Background: Available data on the incidence and outcome of invasive fungal diseases (IFD) in children with hematological malignancies or after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT) are mostly based on monocenter, retrospective studies or on studies performed prior to the availability of newer triazoles or echinocandins.
Procedure: We prospectively collected clinical data on incidence, diagnostic procedures, management and outcome of IFD in children treated for hematological malignancies or undergoing HSCT in three major European pediatric cancer centers.
Results: A total of 304 children (median age 6.0 years) who underwent 360 therapies (211 chemotherapy treatments, 138 allogeneic HSCTs and/or 11 investigational chemotherapeutic treatments) were included in the analysis. Nineteen children developed proven/probable IFD, mostly due to Aspergillus (n = 10) and Candida spp. (n = 5), respectively. In patients receiving chemotherapy, 11 IFDs occurred, all during induction or re-induction therapy. None of these patients died due to IFD, whereas IFD was lethal in 3 of the 8 HSCT recipients with IFD. Significant differences among centers were observed with regard to the use of imaging diagnostics and the choice, initiation and duration of antifungal prophylaxis.
Conclusion: This prospective multicenter study provides information on the current incidence and outcome of IFD in the real life setting. Practice variation between the centers may help to ultimately improve antifungal management in children at highest risk for IFDs.
Für pädiatrische Patienten mit Hochrisikoleukämien ist die Donor-Lymphozyten-Infusion eine etablierte Therapieform, um nach Stammzelltransplantation die Immunrekonstitution zu verbessern oder ein beginnendes Rezidiv abzuwehren. Als schwerwiegende Nebenwirkung kann jedoch eine „Graft-versus-host“-Krankeit (graft-versus-host disease; GVHD) auftreten, bei der die T-Zellen gesundes Gewebe angreifen. In ersten klinischen Studien mit veränderten, Suizidgen tragenden Donor-Lymphozyten konnte durch die rechtzeitige Gabe eines Suizidinduktors die GVHD unterbunden werden. Die genetische Manipulation der T-Zellen führte jedoch zu einem Funktionsverlust, der vermutlich auf die zur Transduktion notwendige Aktivierung zurückzuführen ist. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurden verschiedene Aktivierungsprotokolle mit Beads-gekoppelten oder löslichen Antikörpern hinsichtlich der Expansionsrate und dem Einfluss auf die Funktionalität der T-Zellen näher untersucht. Dazu wurden primäre humane T-Zellen im klinischen oder im Labormaßstab immunomagnetisch über eine CD3 sowie CD4/CD8 Selektion oder mittels der RosetteSep-Prozedur auf > 96% angereichert und anschließend expandiert. Die Transduktion erfolgte an den Tagen 3 und 4 mit einem „GMP-grade“ CD34/HSV-TK Vektor. Zur Aktivierung wurden zum einen lösliche CD3/CD28 Antikörper und zum anderen zellgroße Kügelchen - sogenannte Beads – verwendet. Die Beads wurden mit CD3/CD28 Antikörper und fakultativ mit CD2 beladen. Die beladenen Beads imitieren in der Zellkultur eine Antigen präsentierende Zelle und sollten damit eine möglichst physiologische Situation schaffen. Außerdem wurden unterschiedliche IL-2 Konzentrationen zugesetzt (20-1000 U/ml), um einen potentiellen IL-2 Effekt auf die T-Zellen zu untersuchen. Die Aktivierung mit den löslichen Antikörpern führte zu einer IL-2 abhängigen Proliferation der T-Zellen über 14 Tage mit maximaler Expansionsrate (47fach) bei 1000 U/ml IL-2. Die Expansion mit Beads-gekoppelten Antikörpern war ebenfalls IL-2 abhängig, beschränkte sich jedoch auf die erste Woche und erreichte eine maximale Expansionsrate von 3-4. In der zweiten Woche fiel die Zellzahl ab. Zusammenfassend sind für eine starke Expansion der T-Zellen eine hohe IL-2 Konzentration, aber auch die löslichen Antikörper per se verantwortlich. Gleichzeitig konnte demonstriert werden, dass es große individuelle Unterschiede in der T-Zellexpansion verschiedener Spender gibt. Der Einfluss der Aktivierung auf die Veränderung der T-Zellsubpopulationen wurde mit Hilfe von multiparametrischen Analysen am Durchflusszytometer untersucht. Hohe IL-2 Konzentrationen (100 und 1000 U/ml) sowie die Verwendung löslicher Antikörper führten zu einer starken Zunahme der CD8+ T-Zellen. Der CD4/CD8 Quotient blieb lediglich unter Stimulierung mit den Beads-gekoppelten Antikörpern in Verbindung mit 20 U/ml IL-2 konstant. Mit allen Aktivierungsprotokollen ergab sich für den immunologischen Phänotyp eine Verschiebung vom naiven zum Gedächtniszelltyp. Die Proliferation CMV-spezifischer T-Zellen konnte mit allen Aktivierungsprotokollen erreicht werden und korrelierte mit der Expansionsrate der gesamten CD3+ T-Zellen. Die Zytokinausschüttung war verringert bei den T-Zellen, die mit den löslichen Antikörpern stimuliert wurden. Eine verminderte Zytokinproduktion könnte auf einen Verlust der Funktionalität der T-Zellen hindeuten. Von besonderer Bedeutung ist, dass die Stimulierung über Beads-gekoppelte Antikörper zu einer gleichmäßigen Transduktion von CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen führte. Im Gegensatz dazu hatte die Aktivierung mit löslichen Antikörpern zur Folge, dass hauptsächlich CD8+ T-Zellen transduziert wurden. Für eine kompetente Immunantwort im Rahmen einer DLI erscheint jedoch eine physiologische Zusammensetzung der CD4+ und CD8+ T-Zellen äußerst wichtig. Residuale Stammzellen könnten potentiell co-transduziert werden. Um diese Gefahr abschätzen zu können, wurden ficollisierte PBSC analog der T-Zellen expandiert. Unter allen T-Zellaktivierungsprotokollen blieben die CD34+ Stammzellen in den ersten Tagen der Kultur vital und durchflusszytometrisch nachweisbar. Die Stammzellen expandierten sogar geringfügig und waren damit potentiell transduzierbar - mit der Gefahr einer klonalen Entartung durch Insertionsmutagenese. Dies deutet auf die Wichtigkeit einer T-Zellselektion zur Manipulation von DLI hin, um residuale Stammzellen zu entfernen. Die Suizidstrategie ist eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit zur Kontrolle der GVHD im Rahmen einer DLI. Voraussetzung ist aber, dass die infundierten Zellen auch immunologisch kompetent bleiben und einen GvL-Effekt bewirken. Die Aktivierung mit Beads-gekoppelten Antikörpern scheint zum Erhalt der Immunkompetenz den löslichen Antikörpern überlegen zu sein.
Cell death and survival programs are controlled by the cellular redox state, which is typically dysregulated during oncogenesis. A recent study reports that the inhibition of antioxidant defenses resulting from glutathione depletion can prime acute lymphoblastic leukemia cells for death induced by Smac mimetics.
Aberrant epigenetic regulators control expansion of human CD34+ hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells
(2013)
Transcription is a tightly regulated process ensuring the proper expression of numerous genes regulating all aspects of cellular behavior. Transcription factors regulate multiple genes including other transcription factors that together control a highly complex gene network. The transcriptional machinery can be “hijacked” by oncogenic transcription factors, thereby leading to malignant cell transformation. Oncogenic transcription factors manipulate a variety of epigenetic control mechanisms to fulfill gene regulatory and cell transforming functions. These factors assemble epigenetic regulators at target gene promoter sequences, thereby disturbing physiological gene expression patterns. Retroviral vector technology and the availability of “healthy” human hematopoietic CD34+ progenitor cells enable the generation of pre-leukemic cell models for the analysis of aberrant human hematopoietic progenitor cell expansion mediated by leukemogenic transcription factors. This review summarizes recent findings regarding the mechanism by which leukemogenic gene products control human hematopoietic CD34+ progenitor cell expansion by disrupting the normal epigenetic program.