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Sensors for high rate charge particle tracking have to withstand the harsh radiation doses deposited by the particles to be sensed. This holds particularly for the novel CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors, which are considered a promising sensor technology for future vertex detectors due to their very light material budget and excellent spatial resolution. To resist the radiation doses expected close to the interaction regions of heavy-ion experiments, the sensors have to be hardened against radiation doses, which exceed the native tolerance of CMOS technology significantly. In this thesis, the results of non-ionizing radiation hardness studies at the IKF on sensor prototypes developed at the IPHC in Strasbourg are presented. Our results demonstrate that the CMOS sensors evaluated in the context of this thesis can withstand non-ionizing radiation of up to 5×10^14 neq/cm^2. This hardness qualifies them as promising candidates for use in future vertex detectors.
The main task of modern large experiments with heavy ions, such as CBM (FAIR), STAR (BNL) and ALICE (CERN) is a detailed study of the phase diagram of quantum chromodynamics (QCD) in the quark-gluon plasma (QGP), the equation of state of matter at extremely high baryonic densities, and the transition from the hadronic phase of matter to the quark-gluon phase.
In the thesis, the missing mass method is developed for the reconstruction of short-lived particles with neutral particles in their decay products, as well as its implementation in the form of fast algorithms and a set of software for prac- tical application in heavy ion physics experiments. Mathematical procedures implementing the method were developed and implemented within the KF Par- ticle Finder package for the future CBM (FAIR) experiment and subsequently adapted and applied for processing and analysis of real data in the STAR (BNL) experiment.
The KF Particle Finder package is designed to reconstruct most signal particles from the physics program of the CBM experiment, including strange particles, strange resonances, hypernuclei, light vector mesons, charm particles and char- monium. The package includes searches for over a hundred decays of short-lived particles. This makes the KF Particle Finder a universal platform for short-lived particle reconstruction and physics analysis both online and offline.
The missing mass method has been proposed to reconstruct decays of short-lived charged particles when one of the daughter particles is neutral and is not regis- tered in the detector system. The implementation of the missing mass method was integrated into the KF Particle Finder package to search for 18 decays with a neutral daughter particle.
Like all other algorithms of the KF Particle Finder package, the missing mass method is implemented with extensive use of vector (SIMD) instructions and is optimized for parallel operation on modern many-core high performance com- puter clusters, which can include both processors and coprocessors. A set of algorithms implementing the method was tested on computers with tens of cores and showed high speed and practically linear scalability with respect to the num- ber of cores involved.
It is extremely important, especially for the initial stage of the CBM experiment, which is planned for 2025, to demonstrate already now on real data the reliability of the developed approach, as well as the high efficiency of the current implemen- tation of both the entire KF Particle Finder package, and its integral part, the missing mass method. Such an opportunity was provided by the FAIR Phase-0 program, motivating the use in the STAR experiment of software packages orig- inally developed for the CBM experiment.
Application of the method to real data of the STAR experiment shows very good results with a high signal-to-background ratio and a large significance value. The results demonstrate the reliability and high efficiency of the missing mass method in the reconstruction of both charged mother particles and their neutral daughter particles. Being an integral part of the KF Particle Finder package, now the main approach for reconstruction and analysis of short-lived particles in the STAR experiment, the missing mass method will continue to be used for the physics analysis in online and offline modes.
The high quality of the results of the express data analysis has led to their status as preliminary physics results with the right to present them at international physics conferences and meetings on behalf of the STAR Collaboration.
Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde eine JTAG-Ansteuerung für MIMOSA26-Sensoren basierend auf FPGA-Boards entwickelt. Als VHDL-Code ist die Implementierung anpassbar. Jede JTAG-Chain wird durch einen unabhängigen JTAG-Chain-Controller angesteuert, so dass sich begrenzt durch die Zahl der I/O-Leitungen und die Ressourcen die Anzahl der JTAG-Chain-Controller auf einem FPGA einstellen lässt. Die Anpassbarkeit hat sich bereits bei der Strahlzeit am CERN im November 2012 gezeigt, für die eine Version mit drei JTAG-Chain-Controllern auf einem FPGA und Ausgängen auf einem SCSI-Kabel synthetisiert wurde. Dabei wurde die Prototyp-Frontend-Elektronik Version 1 verwendet. Außerdem ist die Größe des pro Sensor verwendeten Speichers (in Zweierpotenzen) im VHDL-Code einstellbar, um auch eventuelle zukünftige Sensoren mit größeren Registern zu unterstützen.
Aus dieser Sicht sollte die Implementierung mit kleinen Anpassungen im finalen MVD verwendbar sein, es gibt jedoch wie immer noch Verbesserungsmöglichkeiten, z.B. die Verwendung eines externen Speichers. Des Weiteren fehlt noch eine grafische Benutzeroberfläche für den finalen MVD, wobei wie bei den anderen Detektoren von CBM dazu eine Steuerung basierend auf EPICS entwickelt werden sollte, um eine einheitliche Oberfläche zu erreichen.
Auf Seiten der Elektronik für ded finalen MVD gibt es noch einige offene Fragen, vor allem bei der Entwicklung der Zuleitungen für die Sensoren. Die Signale auf den Flexprint-Kabeln zeigen bereits bei kurzen JTAG-Chains ein hohes Übersprechen (Abschnitt 9.1.2), das zu hoch werden könnte, wenn man Sensor-Module mit mehr als einem Sensor (wie für den finalen MVD geplant, siehe Kapitel 3) an das bisher verwendete Chain-FPC anschließt.. Es kann jedoch auch gut sein, dass das Übersprechen gar kein Problem darstellen wird. Prinzipiell besteht die Möglichkeit, dass sich das Übersprechen z.B. durch Einfügen einer Masseschicht in Kabel und Boards reduzieren lässt, was in Simulationen gezeigt wurde (siehe Kapitel 8). Jedoch wurden in diesen Simulationen die Steckverbinder und eventuelle Fehlanpassungen der Boards vernachlässigt, weshalb nicht sicher ist, ob bzw. wie gut sich dies praktisch umsetzen lässt. In jedem Fall stellen die betrachteten Möglichkeiten, das Übersprechen zu reduzieren, einen erhöhten Aufwand dar. Daher erscheint es sinnvoll, zuerst eine konkrete Geometrie für die Elektronik des finalen MVD zu entwerfen1, und für diese zu ermitteln, ob das Übersprechen ein Problem darstellt.
Dabei stellt sich die wichtige Frage, wie viele Sensoren auf einem Sensor-Modul mit einem einlagigen Kabel in der zur Verfügung stehenden Breite angeschlossen werden können, da mindestens vier zusätzliche Datenleitungen für jeden weiteren Sensor erforderlich sind.
The PhD addresses the feasibility of reconstructing open charm mesons with the Compressed Baryonic Matter experiment, which will be installed at the FAIR accelerator complex at Darmstadt/Germany. The measurements will be carried out by means of a dedicated Micro Vertex Detector (MVD), which will be equipped with CMOS Monolithic Active Pixel Sensors (MAPS). The feasibility of reconstructing the particles with a proposed detector setup was studied.
To obtain conclusive results, the properties of a MAPS prototype were measured in a beam test at the CERN-SPS accelerator. Based on the results achieved, a dedicated simulation software for the sensors was developed and implemented into the software framework of CBM (CBMRoot). Simulations on the reconstruction of D0-mesons were carried out. It is concluded that the reconstruction of those particles is possible.
The PhD introduces the physics motivation of doing open charm measurements, represents the results of the measurements of MAPS and introduces the innovative simulation model for those sensors as much as the concept and results of simulations of the D0 reconstruction.
The Compressed Baryonic Matter experiment (CBM) at FAIR and the NA61/SHINE experiment at CERN SPS aim to study the area of the QCD phase diagram at high net baryon densities and moderate temperatures using heavy-ion collisions. The FAIR and SPS accelerators cover energy ranges 2-11 and 13-150 GeV per nucleon respectively in laboratory frame for heavy ions up to Au and Pb. One of the key observables to study the properties of a matter created in such collisions is an anisotropic transverse flow of particles.
In this work, the performance of the CBM experiment for anisotropic flow measurements is studied with Monte-Carlo simulations using gold ions at SIS-100 energies employing different heavy-ion event generators. Also, procedures for centrality estimation and charged hadron identification are described and corresponding frameworks are developed.
The measurement of the reaction plane angle is performed with Projectile Spectator Detector (PSD), which is a hadron calorimeter located at a very forward angle. To prevent radiation damage by the high-intensity ion beam, the PSD has a hole in the center to let the beam pass through. Various combinations of CBM detector subsystems are used to investigate the possible systematic biases in flow and centrality measurements. Effects of detector azimuthal non uniformity and the PSD beam hole size on physics performance are studied. The resulting performance of CBM for flow measurements is demonstrated for identified charged hadron anisotropic flow as a function of rapidity and transverse momentum in different centrality classes.
The measurement techniques developed for CBM were also validated with the experimental data recently collected by the NA61/SHINE experiment at CERN SPS for Pb+Pb collisions at the beam momenta 30A GeV/c. Compared to the existing data from the NA49 experiment at the CERN SPS, the new data allows for a more precise measurement of anisotropic flow harmonics. The fixed target setup of NA61/SHINE also allows extending flow measurements available from the STAR at the RHIC beam energy scan (BES) program to a wide rapidity range up to the forward region where the projectile nucleon spectators appear. In this thesis, an analysis of the anisotropic flow harmonics in Pb+Pb collisions at beam momenta 30A GeV/c collected by the NA61/SHINE experiment in the year 2016 is presented. Flow coefficients are measured relative to the spectator plane estimated with the Projectile Spectators Detector (PSD). The flow coefficients are obtained as a function of rapidity and transverse momentum in different classes of collision centrality. The results are compared with the corresponding NA49 data and the measurements from the RHIC BES program.