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The nuclear exosome and its essential co-factor, the RNA helicase MTR4, play crucial roles in several RNA degradation pathways. Besides unwinding RNA substrates for exosome-mediated degradation, MTR4 associates with RNA-binding proteins that function as adaptors in different RNA processing and decay pathways. Here, we identify and characterize the interactions of human MTR4 with a ribosome processing adaptor, NVL, and with ZCCHC8, an adaptor involved in the decay of small nuclear RNAs. We show that the unstructured regions of NVL and ZCCHC8 contain short linear motifs that bind the MTR4 arch domain in a mutually exclusive manner. These short sequences diverged from the arch-interacting motif (AIM) of yeast rRNA processing factors. Our results suggest that nuclear exosome adaptors have evolved canonical and non-canonical AIM sequences to target human MTR4 and demonstrate the versatility and specificity with which the MTR4 arch domain can recruit a repertoire of different RNA-binding proteins.
We present the rapid biophysical characterization of six previously reported putative G‐quadruplex‐forming RNAs from the 5′‐untranslated region (5′‐UTR) of silvestrol‐sensitive transcripts for investigation of their secondary structures. By NMR and CD spectroscopic analysis, we found that only a single sequence—[AGG]2[CGG]2C—folds into a single well‐defined G‐quadruplex structure. Sequences with longer poly‐G strands form unspecific aggregates, whereas CGG‐repeat‐containing sequences exhibit a temperature‐dependent equilibrium between a hairpin and a G‐quadruplex structure. The applied experimental strategy is fast and provides robust readout for G‐quadruplex‐forming capacities of RNA oligomers.
Telomeric G-quadruplexes have recently emerged as drug targets in cancer research. Herein, we present the first NMR structure of a telomeric DNA G-quadruplex that adopts the biologically relevant hybrid-2 conformation in a ligand-bound state. We solved the complex with a metalorganic gold(III) ligand that stabilizes G-quadruplexes. Analysis of the free and bound structures reveals structural changes in the capping region of the G-quadruplex. The ligand is sandwiched between one terminal G-tetrad and a flanking nucleotide. This complex structure involves a major structural rearrangement compared to the free G-quadruplex structure as observed for other G-quadruplexes in different conformations, invalidating simple docking approaches to ligand-G-quadruplex structure determination
The C40A/C82A double mutant of barstar has been shown to undergo cold denaturation above the water freezing point. By rapidly applying radio-frequency power to lossy aqueous samples, refolding of barstar from its cold-denatured state can be followed by real-time NMR spectroscopy. Since temperature-induced unfolding and refolding is reversible for this double mutant, multiple cycling can be utilized to obtain 2D real-time NMR data. Barstar contains two proline residues that adopt a mix of cis and trans conformations in the low-temperature-unfolded state, which can potentially induce multiple folding pathways. The high time resolution real-time 2D-NMR measurements reported here show evidence for multiple folding pathways related to proline isomerization, and stable intermediates are populated. By application of advanced heating cycles and state-correlated spectroscopy, an alternative folding pathway circumventing the rate-limiting cis-trans isomerization could be observed. The kinetic data revealed intermediates on both, the slow and the fast folding pathway.
Proteins encoded by small open reading frames (sORFs) have a widespread occurrence in diverse microorganisms and can be of high functional importance. However, due to annotation biases and their technically challenging direct detection, these small proteins have been overlooked for a long time and were only recently rediscovered. The currently rapidly growing number of such proteins requires efficient methods to investigate their structure–function relationship. Herein, a method is presented for fast determination of the conformational properties of small proteins. Their small size makes them perfectly amenable for solution-state NMR spectroscopy. NMR spectroscopy can provide detailed information about their conformational states (folded, partially folded, and unstructured). In the context of the priority program on small proteins funded by the German research foundation (SPP2002), 27 small proteins from 9 different bacterial and archaeal organisms have been investigated. It is found that most of these small proteins are unstructured or partially folded. Bioinformatics tools predict that some of these unstructured proteins can potentially fold upon complex formation. A protocol for fast NMR spectroscopy structure elucidation is described for the small proteins that adopt a persistently folded structure by implementation of new NMR technologies, including automated resonance assignment and nonuniform sampling in combination with targeted acquisition.
Photolabile protecting groups are widely used to trigger oligonucleotide activity. The ON/OFF‐amplitude is a critical parameter. An experimental setup has been developed to identify protecting group derivatives with superior caging properties. Bulky rests are attached to the cage moiety via Cu‐catalyzed azide–alkyne cycloaddition post‐synthetically on DNA. Interestingly, the decrease in melting temperature upon introducing o‐nitrobenzyl‐caged (NPBY‐) and diethylaminocoumarin‐cages (DEACM‐) in DNA duplexes reaches a limiting value. NMR spectroscopy was used to characterize individual base‐pair stabilities and determine experimental structures of a selected number of photocaged DNA molecules. The experimental structures agree well with structures predicted by MD simulations. Combined, the structural data indicate that once a sterically demanding group is added to generate a tri‐substituted carbon, the sterically less demanding cage moiety points towards the neighboring nucleoside and the bulkier substituents remain in the major groove.
NMR-spektroskopische Untersuchungen zur Bindung kleiner Moleküle an das Zellzyklusprotein CDC25A
(2010)
Viele verschiedene Funktionen der Zelle werden durch posttranslationale Modifikationen von Proteinen reguliert. Die reversible Phosphorylierung der OH-Gruppen der Aminosäuren Serin, Threonin und Tyrosin ist eine der Möglichkeiten die Aktivität von Proteinen an- und abzuschalten und Interaktion mit Bindungspartnern zu ermöglichen oder zu verhindern. Die Phosphatase CDC25A übernimmt eine zentrale Rolle in der Steuerung des Zellzyklus, unterliegt selbst wiederum einer differenzierten Kontrolle durch Änderung des Expressionslevel, Phosphorylierung und Lokalisation innerhalb der Zelle. Da eine Überfunktion von CDC25A mit einer Vielzahl von verschiedenen Krebserkrankungen assoziiert ist, wird die Entwicklung starker und selektiver Inhibitoren, die auch in vivo wirksam sind, vorangetrieben. Die strukturellen Grundlagen selektiver Inhibition sind allerdings noch unzureichend erforscht. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden die Grundlagen für eine erfolgreiche Durchführung von NMR-Experimenten gelegt, für die Proteinproben mit hoher Konzentration und Langzeitstabilität benötigt werden. CDC25A kann nicht in der vollen Länge exprimiert werden und wäre als Vollkonstrukt auch zu groß, um effektiv per NMR untersuchbar zu sein. Durch Erzeugung diverser Konstrukte der katalytischen Domäne von CDC25A konnte ein Expressionslevel erreicht werden, der die Erzeugung ausreichender Mengen an Protein praktikabel macht. Neben des oftmals geringen Expressionslevels ist ein weiteres Problem bei NMR-spektroskopischen Untersuchungen vieler Phosphatasen deren geringe Stabilität während der Aufreinigung und in der endgültigen Probe. Durch Optimierung der Pufferbedingungen für den Zellaufschluss in Bezug auf pH-Wert, Salzkonzentration und Art des Kations per „Incomplete Factorial Design“ konnte die Ausbeute an löslichem Protein erheblich gesteigert werden. Die Verwendung dieser Pufferbedingungen während der ersten Aufreinigungsschritte verminderte auch die Tendenz des Proteins während der Chromatografie auszufallen. Die Zusammensetzung des Puffers für die endgültige NMR-Probe wurde schließlich durch das aus der Kristallografie entlehnte Verfahren der Dampfdiffusion ebenso in Hinblick auf pH-Wert, Salzkonzentration und Art des Anions optimiert. Unter diesen optimierten Pufferbedingungen wurde die katalytische Aktivität des Proteinkonstrukts anhand der Hydrolyse von para-Nitrophenylphosphat nachgewiesen. Acht Substanzen wurden auf Inhibition dieser katalytischen Aktivität getestet. Das natürliche Substrat Phosphotyrosin zeigte eine kompetitive Hemmung, zwei starke und ein schwacher Inhibitor zeigten entsprechend verminderte Reaktionsraten. Von den restlichen 4 Substanzen (Inhibitoren anderer Protein-Tyrosin-Phosphatasen und strukturelle Verwandte) zeigten 3 weitere eine starke Wirkung. Diese hohe Promiskuität gegenüber Inhibitoren stellt ein großes Problem für die strukturgetriebene Wirkstoffentwicklung bei CDC25A und generell aller Phosphatasen dar. Nach Erhalt der fertigen Proben zeigten erste 2D-NMR-Spektren eine geringer als zu erwartende Zahl von Signalen und starke Überlappungen der sichtbaren Signale. Um auszuschließen, das Dimerisierung oder unspezifische Aggregation hierfür verantwortlich sind, wurden DOSY-Spektren gemessen. Aus der Eigendiffusionsrate ergibt sich ein hydrodynamischer Radius, der mit durch HYDROPRO simulierten Werten übereinstimmt und sich deutlich von dem des putativen Dimers absetzt. Daher wird davon ausgegangen, dass die Signalverluste im NMR nicht durch Dimerisierung oder Aggregation ausgelöst werden. Um die Bindung von Inhibitoren auch durch NMR-Spektroskopie nachzuweisen, wurden Saturation-Transfer-Difference-Experimente (STD) durchgeführt. In diesen war aber sowohl für das natürliche Substrat Phosphotyrosin als auch für alle im Enzymtest aktiven Inhibitoren kein Effekt nachweisbar. Dies weist auf eine sehr hohe koff-Rate der Bindung an das Protein hin oder auf eine irreversible chemische Modifikation des aktiven Zentrums, die bis zum Zeitpunkt der Messung bereits abgeschlossen war. Für die strukturbasierte Wirkstoffentwicklung werden spezifische Interaktionspunkte auf der Proteinoberfläche gesucht. Hierfür wurden 15N-HSQC-Spektren mit und ohne Bindungspartner gemessen und die Veränderungen der chemischen Verschiebung bestimmt („chemical shift perturbation“). Es konnten für Phosphotyrosin und die beiden starken Inhibitoren BN82002 und NSC663284 signifikante Veränderungen nachgewiesen werden. Für alle drei Moleküle gab es sowohl komplett einzigartige Veränderungen als auch paarweise übereinstimmende als auch ein Signal das für alle 3 übereinstimmt. Neben den Inhibitoren wurden drei Peptide auf spezifische Interaktion getestet. Das erste entspricht der Zielsequenz des natürlichen Substrats CDK, die anderen beiden sind Teile der Sequenz von CDK an einer nachgewiesenen als auch einer putativen sekundären Interaktionsfläche der beiden Proteine. Auch für die drei Peptide konnten wie für die Inhibitoren individuelle als auch übereinstimmende Signalveränderungen nachgewiesen werden. Als Voraussetzung für die Bestimmung der Oberflächenkontakte, die für die spezifische Bindung von Substrat, Inhibitoren und Interaktionspeptiden nötig sind, wird eine Zuordnung der Signale des 15N-HSQC-Spektrums zu den Aminosäureresten des Proteins benötigt. Hierzu wurden 3D-Tripelresonanz-NMR-Experimente an 15N, 13C-markierten Proben (zusätzlich auch noch 2H-markierte Proben zur Unterdrückung von Relaxationseffekten) durchgeführt. Um die Zuordnung zu unterstützen wurden außerdem Proben mit individuell 15N-markierten Aminosäuren hergestellt, um einem Signal im HSQC zumindest den Typ der Aminosäure zuordnen zu können. Aufgrund der trotz Pufferoptimierung, Deuterierung des Proteins und verringerter Signalüberlagerung in den Spektren der individuell markierten Proben zu geringen Anzahl an Signalen konnten nur kurze Bereiche der Aminosäuresequenz zugeordnet werden. Aufgrund dieser Basis konnte kein aussagekräftiges Mapping erzielt werden.
The formation and maintenance of a defined three-dimensional structure is a prerequisite for most proteins in order to fulfill their function in the native context. However, there are proteins, which are intrinsically unstructured and thus natively unfolded. In addition, the misfolding and aggregation of many proteins can lead to severe diseases. The investigation of non-native states of proteins significantly contributes to the understanding of protein folding and misfolding. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is the only known technique that can provide information on structure and dynamics of non-native states of proteins at atomic resolution. Unfolded and non-native states of proteins have to be treated as ensembles of rapidly interconverting conformers and their observed properties are ensemble and time averaged. In this thesis, hen egg white lysozyme (HEWL) and mutants thereof have been investigated by NMR spectroscopy. The reduction of its four disulfide bridges and the successive methylation of the cysteine residues renders HEWL permanently non-native (‘HEWL-SMe’). Alternatively, the exchange of the eight cysteines for alanines results in very similar states (‘all-Ala-HEWL’). Under these conditions, HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL do not resemble random coil conformations, but exhibit residual secondary and tertiary structure. The presence of hydrophobic clusters and long-range interactions around the proteins six tryptophan residues and the modulation of these properties by single-point mutants has been observed. For the NMR spectroscopic investigation, HEWL has been isotopically labelled in E. coli by expression into inclusion bodies. After purification, the 1HN, 15NH, 13Calpha, 13Cbeta, 13C’, 1Halpha and 1Hbeta resonances of HEWL-SMe and all-Ala-HEWL have been assigned almost completely using three-dimensional NMR experiments. The analysis of secondary chemical shifts revealed regions in the proteins sequence — particularly around the six tryptophan residues—with significantly populated alpha-helix like conformations. In order to further elucidate the influence of the tryptophan side chains, a set of two new pulse sequences has been developed that allowed for the successful assignment of the 13Cg, 15Ne and 1HNe resonances in these side chains. This knowledge was eventually exploited in the interpretation of two-dimensional 15N-1H photo-CIDNP spectra, which revealed a differential solvent accessibility of the tryptophan residues in all-Ala-HEWL but not in the single point mutant W62G-all-Ala-HEWL. In addition, heteronuclear R2 relaxation rates have been determined for the indole 15Ne nuclei of all-Ala-HEWL and W62G. While in the wild-type like all-Ala-HEWL, the rates are different among the six tryptophan residues, in W62G they are more uniform. Together with relaxation data from the amide backbone, these results indicate the significant destabilization of the hydrophobic clusters in the absence of W62. In contrast, in the W108G mutant the profile of the R2 relaxation rates was not found to be significantly altered. No evidence was found by R1rho relaxation rates and relaxation dispersion measurements for conformational exchange on slower (micro- to millisecond) timescales. Residual dipolar couplings have been determined for non-native HEWL in order to retrieve structural information of these states. The differences of the W62G and the wild-type like non-native HEWL is also picked up in NH-RDCs of these proteins aligned in polyacrylamide gels. Significant positive RDCs are observed in the regions of the hydrophobic clusters in all-Ala-HEWL, but to a much lesser degree in W62G. So far, all attempts to simulate RDCs from generated non-native ensembles failed even when including long-range contacts or specific phi/psi backbone angle propensities. However, the measured RDCs can be used to cross-validate structural ensembles of non-native HEWL generated by molecular dynamics simulations that are based on restraints from the other experimental data, such as the differential solvent accessibilities from the photo-CIDNP experiments and the data on the hydrophobic clustering gained from the combined mutational and relaxation studies. Finally, non-native HEWL has been investigated for the first time using two-dimensional NMR in organic solvents, which are able to induce secondary structures and ultimately lead to amyloid formation. Under these conditions severe line broadening was observed, which was attributed to exchange between different — mostly a-helical— conformations. In summary, in this thesis methods have been developed, optimized and successfully applied for the structural and dynamical characterization of non-native states of proteins and the effect of single-point mutants on the properties of such ensembles has been investigated. Data has been gained that can considerably contribute to the further elucidation of the nature of non-native states of HEWL by molecular dynamics simulations.
Despite the great interest in glycoproteins, structural information reporting on conformation and dynamics of the sugar moieties are limited. We present a new biochemical method to express proteins with glycans that are selectively labeled with NMR‐active nuclei. We report on the incorporation of 13C‐labeled mannose in the C‐mannosylated UNC‐5 thrombospondin repeat. The conformational landscape of the C‐mannose sugar puckers attached to tryptophan residues of UNC‐5 is characterized by interconversion between the canonical 1C4 state and the B03 / 1S3 state. This flexibility may be essential for protein folding and stabilization. We foresee that this versatile tool to produce proteins with selectively labeled C‐mannose can be applied and adjusted to other systems and modifications and potentially paves a way to advance glycoprotein research by unravelling the dynamical and conformational properties of glycan structures and their interactions.
The Taiwan cobra (Naja naja atra) chymotrypsin inhibitor (NACI) consists of 57 amino acids and is related to other Kunitz-type inhibitors such as bovine pancreatic trypsin inhibitor (BPTI) and Bungarus fasciatus fraction IX (BF9), another chymotrypsin inhibitor. Here we present the solution structure of NACI. We determined the NMR structure of NACI with a root-mean-square deviation of 0.37 Å for the backbone atoms and 0.73 Å for the heavy atoms on the basis of 1,075 upper distance limits derived from NOE peaks measured in its NOESY spectra. To investigate the structural characteristics of NACI, we compared the three-dimensional structure of NACI with BPTI and BF9. The structure of the NACI protein comprises one 310-helix, one α-helix and one double-stranded antiparallel β-sheet, which is comparable with the secondary structures in BPTI and BF9. The RMSD value between the mean structures is 1.09 Å between NACI and BPTI and 1.27 Å between NACI and BF9. In addition to similar secondary and tertiary structure, NACI might possess similar types of protein conformational fluctuations as reported in BPTI, such as Cys14–Cys38 disulfide bond isomerization, based on line broadening of resonances from residues which are mainly confined to a region around the Cys14–Cys38 disulfide bond.