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The emotional state of being moved, though frequently referred to in both classical rhetoric and current language use, is far from established as a well-defined psychological construct. In a series of three studies, we investigated eliciting scenarios, emotional ingredients, appraisal patterns, feeling qualities, and the affective signature of being moved and related emotional states. The great majority of the eliciting scenarios can be assigned to significant relationship and critical life events (especially death, birth, marriage, separation, and reunion). Sadness and joy turned out to be the two preeminent emotions involved in episodes of being moved. Both the sad and the joyful variants of being moved showed a coactivation of positive and negative affect and can thus be ranked among the mixed emotions. Moreover, being moved, while featuring only low-to-mid arousal levels, was experienced as an emotional state of high intensity; this applied to responses to fictional artworks no less than to own-life and other real, but media-represented, events. The most distinctive findings regarding cognitive appraisal dimensions were very low ratings for causation of the event by oneself and for having the power to change its outcome, along with very high ratings for appraisals of compatibility with social norms and self-ideals. Putting together the characteristics identified and discussed throughout the three studies, the paper ends with a sketch of a psychological construct of being moved.
Teaching empathy and emotions : J. M. Coetzee's "The lives of animals" and human-animal studies
(2022)
In "Teaching Empathy and Emotions: J. M. Coetzee's 'The Lives of Animals' and Human-Animal Studies," Alexandra Böhm focuses on one of the most influential novels in the field of HAS. In her article, she delineates the two main difficulties in teaching Coetzee's text: firstly, the text's protagonist, fierce and fearless Australian author Elizabeth Costello, is often less-than-lovable and offers few grounds for identification; secondly, the text's multilayered structure further problematizes the authorial voice. However, by focusing on Costello's reassessment of emotion and empathy, Böhm convincingly demonstrates that Coetzee's text offers possibilities for understanding the key concepts of HAS, such as animal agency, alterity, and the necessity of assuming a non-anthropocentric perspective. In the narrative, Costello employs empathy in her approach to animals, but is this also true of the metadiegetic level of Coetzee's text? Does the text itself suggest how to teach empathy? Alexandra Böhm demonstrates that it is possible to elicit affective responses to these questions through emotion journals and role-playing.
Mein Beitrag handelt von zwei Begriffen, die gleichermaßen gut eingeführt sind, aber üblicherweise nicht gemeinsam verhandelt werden: Sympathie und Synergie. Die Disziplinen und Kontexte, in denen sie heute auftreten, sind weit voneinander entfernt: Die Synergie hat ihre Domänen in Technik und Wirtschaftswissenschaft, der Sympathie sind vor allem Philosophie und Psychologie zugetan. Freilich sind diese Wörter so nahe miteinander verwandt, dass es verwunderlich oder gar bedauerlich ist, sie beziehungslos nebeneinander stehen zu sehen. Immerhin gibt es Diskussionen, in denen dieses Tandem zwar nicht namentlich auftritt, aber der Sache nach zum ema gemacht wird. Diese Diskussionen möchte ich aufgreifen und vorantreiben, denn das Tandem Synergie/Sympathie hat, wie ich meine, erhebliches sozialtheoretisches Potential.
In folk theories of art reception, readers and cinema audiences are said to experience fictional worlds vicariously 'through' characters, i.e. they 'identify' themselves with them, they partake in their experiences 'empathetically'. In the first section of my essay, I will argue that it is not character but focalization (point of view) which, on a fundamental level, guides our fictional experience, and I will exemplify several ways that characters (or similar ideas) can then in addition come into play. In the next two sections, I will discuss possible cognitive correlates of both the textual device of focalization and textual clues indicating ›persons‹. The aim is to show that what I call ›psycho-poetic effects‹ (that is, the mental representation of anthropomorphic instances) are best described as byproducts of various cognitive programs involved in the reception of narrative fiction. 'Empathy', as it is understood in the above mentioned folk theory of art reception, can then be analysed into individual algorithms of social cognition. And it can be differentiated, as is done in the last section, from other phenomena often confused with it, like emotional experience proper and emotional contagion. Also, I refer to the idea that mirror neurons provide the means to empathize with others, literary characters included. My general proposition is to revise and refine those concepts with the help of evolutionary theory and, thus, to hypothesize as cognitive correlates for textual features only programs specific enough to be correlated with a specific adaptive function which they may have performed in the process of human evolution.
The object of this paper is to further understand how reading literature increases capacity for empathy, and how narratives positively influence human beings. This will be done via a close reading of China Miéville's "Perdido Street Station" with particular focus on the character Yagharek whose tragic situation and journey provides a starting point for a discussion about empathy. The question is whether speculative fiction can be more capable of triggering empathy than other genres. In his analysis Dennis Friedrichsen demonstrates the ways in which fantasy literature creates an effective distance to the real world in order to negotiate complicated issues of morality, ethics and empathy.
The construct diversity describes the collective amount of differences among members within a social unit. The present dissertation is based on the assumption that, through engagement with diversity, people acquire an understanding of what role diversity plays in the societies, organizations, work groups, or other social units they are part of. This understanding of the role diversity plays in a given social unit provides a vantage point from which people will engage with diversity in the future. These vantage points from which people engage with diversity are the general subject matter of the present dissertation. Two main research questions are addressed in this regard: First, whether the role diversity is given in a particular context does have effects on groups and the individual members therein. Second, if such effects exist, it seeks to explore the processes and mechanisms they are based on. Both questions are addressed from different perspectives in the three main chapters of this dissertation. Chapter 5 contains two meta-analyses on the effects of diversity beliefs and diversity climates. Diversity beliefs are individual attitudes that describe the degree to which diversity is ascribed an instrumental value for achieving beneficial outcomes or avoiding detrimental ones. Diversity climates depict such a value of diversity on the group-level. Building on the social identity approach, I explain how diversity beliefs and climates can obviate diversity’s detrimental effects and foster beneficial ones. As both diversity beliefs and climates can cause such effects, they are considered together in the main analyses in the chapter. In the first part of the chapter, a meta-analysis on these moderator effects of diversity beliefs/climates is presented (k = 23). The majority of studies that addressed such effects reported significant results. The patterns of these results showed that, in general, diversity will be more positively related to beneficial outcomes the more it is valued. However, the analysis also revealed that there are at least two types of patterns of this moderation. So far, it cannot be explained which pattern will occur under what circumstances. In the second part of the chapter, a meta-analysis on the main effects of diversity beliefs/climates on beneficial outcomes is presented (k = 71). These effects did not receive much attention in the primary studies. Based on the social identity approach and the fact that diversity is a ubiquitous feature of modern organizations, I argue that they are important nonetheless. The meta-analysis revealed a significant positive main effect of diversity beliefs on beneficial outcomes (r = .25; p < .0001). However, the effect sizes varied considerably across studies. Both moderator and main effects were found across a broad array of outcomes, study designs, levels of analysis, and operationalizations of the constructs involved. They were found irrespective of whether diversity beliefs or diversity climates were considered. The heterogeneity of results in the meta-analyses suggests that there is still much to be learned about when differences in vantage points from which people engage with diversity will have an effect and about the processes that underlie these effects. Chapter 6 is, therefore, predominantly concerned with these underlying processes. Most of the previous research has treated pro-diversity beliefs and pro-similarity beliefs as opposite poles of one underlying continuum. There is, however, evidence that people can hold both types of beliefs simultaneously. Therefore, I propose that both diversity in certain aspects and similarity in other aspects can simultaneously constitute valid and valued parts of an organization’s identity, and that, hence, identifying with the organization can create two forms of solidarity among the employees: organic solidarity – based on meaningfully and synergistically interrelated differences, and mechanic solidarity – based on the common ground that all employees share. Furthermore, I propose that both forms of solidarity can coexist and that both are positively related to the quality of collaboration within the organization. Thus, organizational identification is proposed to influence quality of collaboration indirectly through both organic and mechanic solidarity. These propositions were tested with regard to the collaboration of different teams within two organizations: a German university (Study 1, N = 699) and a Taiwanese hospital (Study 2, N = 591). The results from both studies confirm the predictions. However, the relative importance of each form of solidarity varied across study contexts and across different facets of the quality of collaboration. Chapter 7 also builds on the findings from the meta-analyses and is again predominantly focussed on the processes underlying the effects of diversity beliefs and diversity climates, yet from a different angle. Previously, diversity beliefs and climates have often been discussed with regard to their potential to influence whether diversity will lead to more and deeper elaboration of information within the group. In chapter 7 a theoretical model is developed that complements these cognitive processes by addressing the emotional side of diverse groups. Central to the model is the assumption that group diversity can stimulate group members to engage with each other emotionally, resulting in higher levels of state affective empathy: an emotional state which arises from the comprehension and apprehension of fellow group members’ emotional state. State affective empathy, in turn, is known to lead to a variety of beneficial team processes that can ultimately enhance individual and group-level performance. Thus, the central proposition of the model is that the relationship between diversity and performance is mediated through state affective empathy. The other propositions in the model specify moderators that determine when diversity will indeed have this empathy-stimulating effect. Diversity beliefs and climates are considered second-order moderators that shape the relationship between diversity and empathy through their influence on the first-order moderators. In general, it is proposed that diversity is related to empathy more positively if it is valued by the group or its members. In summary, the results from the meta-analyses in chapter 5, the results from the field studies in chapter 6, and the theoretical arguments presented in chapter 7 can be interpreted such that differences in vantage points from which people engage with diversity can indeed affect groups and their members. Therefore, the first research question of the present dissertation can be answered affirmatively from three different perspectives. However, it also became clear that there is still much uncertainty about the mechanisms underlying these effects. In line with the second research question of the present dissertation, these mechanisms were examined more closely in chapter 6 and 7. The field studies in chapter 6 highlighted the role of identification as the driving force behind the effects of different vantage points on diversity. Furthermore, they also corroborate the proposition that valuing diversity and valuing similarity can be co-occurring phenomena that both influence the collaboration within the group positively. The theoretical model presented in chapter 7 opens up a new emotional way in which diversity beliefs and climates can influence whether diversity will lead to better or worse performance. In sum, therefore, also with regard to the second research question of the present dissertation, progress has been made.
Hans Keilson faz parte do numeroso grupo de escritores de língua alemã que publicou entre as décadas de 1930 e 1950 obras sobre a Segunda Guerra Mundial e temas tangentes. Reconhecido tardiamente, Keilson escreveu romances, autobiografia e ensaios em que se confundem suas experiências, seu conhecimento técnico como psicanalista e a ficção. Neste artigo propomos uma leitura da novela "Comédia em tom menor" ("Komödie in Moll"), destacando a empatia como chave fundamental para leitura da obra, a focalização como expediente narrativo para alcançá-la, e a presença de elementos cômicos imiscuídos à realidade grave e por vezes trágica que é construída no conto.
In die folgende Liste sind Literaturhinweise von Christine Noll Brinckmann, Jens Eder, Klemens Hippel, Stefan Jenzowsky, Niels Martens und Ludger Kaczmarek eingegangen. Die Liste verzeichnet vor allem Arbeiten, die der Frage der empathischen Prozesse während der Film- und Fernsehrezeption nachgehen. Allgemeine Arbeiten sind nur dann verzeichnet, wenn sie Überblickscharakter haben und Aufschluß über die nicht-filmwissenschaftlichen Diskussionen zur Empathie geben. Auf ein Verzeichnis der einfühlungsästhetischen Arbeiten in der Nachfolge Lipps‘ und Worringers habe ich verzichtet - dieser Kreis von Arbeiten soll an anderer Stelle dokumentiert werden. Alle Fehler und Auslassungen sind durch mich verschuldet. Ich bitte alle Leser, mich auf Fehler und weitere Arbeiten hinzuweisen und die vorliegenden Angaben zu ergänzen. Hans J. Wulff, Institut für NDL und Medien, Leibnizstr. 8, D-24098 Kiel. hwulff@litwiss-ndl.uni-kiel.de.
Obwohl Empathie beim literarischen Lesen unstrittig eine äußerst bedeutsame Rolle spielt, ist sie ein in der Literaturdidaktik immer noch nicht theoretisch und empirisch ausreichend erforschter Bereich. Bisher noch so gut wie gänzlich unbeachtet ist dabei ein Phänomen, das eng und unmittelbar mit empathischen Prozessen zusammenhängt: Ekpathie. Hierbei handelt es sich um lesebezogene Aspekte, die möglicherweise auch auf Grund ihres beispielsweise aktiv zurückweisenden Charakters - Leser:innen nähern sich einer literarischen Figur bewusst und willentlich nicht - aus nahe liegenden Gründen in der Literaturdidaktik noch nicht grundlegend thematisiert wurden. Der vorliegende Beitrag skizziert ekpathische Prozesse beim Lesen literarischer Texte in theoretischer Hinsicht und veranschaulicht sie auf der Grundlage wirkungsästhetischer Überlegungen auch aus einer dezidiert intersektionalen Perspektive anhand eines jugendliterarischen Beispieltextes.
Empathie
(2018)
Die partielle Begriffsgeschichtsvergessenheit mit Blick auf Empathie scheint Effekt ihrer gelungenen Psychologisierung und Übernahme in naturwissenschaftlich orientierte Disziplinen zu sein. Eine Geschichte des Begriffs, die jene antike 'empatheia'-Tradition und die Empathie-Diskurse der letzten 110 Jahre nicht von vornherein separiert, wäre vielleicht eine Geschichte langsamer Affektkontrolle. Der Transfer ginge dann so: 'Empatheia' - mit Gefühl - Mitgefühl. Er beschriebe einen Wandel der Empathie in ein soziales, kommunikatives Geschäft und einen allmählichen 'emotional turn' innerhalb der Empathie-Begriffsgeschichte, der das Erfasstwerden von äußeren, gegebenenfalls dämonischen, Kräften dadurch bannen konnte, dass er aus dem radikalen Kontrollverlust, den die antike 'empatheia' hieß, zuerst ein - modern verinnerlichtes und eingehegtes - 'gefühlvoll' werden ließ. Im 20. Jahrhundert, angereichert mit ästhetischem Einfühlungswissen, gab Empathie, als Begriff und Gegenstand, nicht nur der Psychologie epistemologischen Halt. Sie wurde mit ihrer Vereinnahmung durch die 'psy sciences' zur vergötterten Gabe und menschlichen Natur. "[S]uper-empathizer" sind Idole der Gegenwart, und als pathologisch gilt das Empathie-Defizit. Heute ist Empathie, Gefühl zweiter Ordnung, Übergriff und "Erwartungserwartung", selbst ein Medium der Affektkontrolle.