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Maligne Gliome sind die häufigsten Neoplasien des Zentralen Nervensystems. Sie zählen zu den hypoxischsten Tumoren und entwickeln u.a. durch die Adaption an niedrige Sauerstoffbedingungen Apoptose-resistente Phänotypen. Darüber hinaus zeichnen sie sich durch schnelle Proliferation und ein diffuses, infiltratives Wachstum in das umliegende Neuropil aus, was eine vollständige Tumor-Resektion unmöglich macht. Entsprechend liegt die mediane Überlebenszeit nach der Diagnose trotz chirurgischen Eingriffs bei anaplastischen Astrozytomen (WHO Grad III) zwischen 18 und 20 Monaten und bei Glioblastomen (WHO Grad IV) zwischen 12 und 15 Monaten. Im ersten Abschnitt der vorliegenden Arbeit wurden 17 Gliomzelllinien in einem in vitro-Anoxiemodell auf ihre Hypoxie-Sensitivität hin untersucht. Dabei wurde eine hohe Variabilität hinsichtlich der Hypoxie-Toleranz festgestellt, sowie die Tendenz zu einer ausgeprägter Anpassung an niedrige Sauerstoffverhältnisse, begleitet von der Fähigkeit, das mitochondriale Membranpotential (delta psi m) aufrecht zu erhalten. Der durch Hypoxie induzierte Zelltod wurde als Caspase-unabhängig und Nekrose-ähnlich charakterisiert. Apoptose wurde hingegen auch in den Hypoxie-sensitiven Zelllinien nach 48 stündigem Sauerstoffentzug nur in sehr geringem Ausmaß beobachtet. Funktionelle Analysen mit den synthetischen BH3-Mimetika HA14-1 und BH3I 2’, die selektiv Bcl-2 bzw. Bcl xL/Bcl-2 inhibieren, lassen darauf schließen, dass die für Gliomzellen typische Bcl-2- und Bcl xL-Überexpression eine Blockade des mitochondrialen Signalwegs verursacht und so entscheidend zur Apoptose-Resistenz der Zellen beiträgt. Der Todesligand TRAIL, der selektiv in Tumorzellen Zelltod aktiviert, ist ein vielversprechender Kandidat für neue Apoptose-induzierende Krebstherapien. Da jedoch einige Krebszelltypen einschließlich maligner Gliome weitgehend gegen TRAIL resistent sind, richtet sich das Interesse verstärkt auf kombinatorische Therapieansätze, die Tumorzellen für TRAIL resensitivieren sollen. Nur zwei von sechs untersuchten Gliomzelllinien reagierten auf die Behandlung mit TRAIL, wobei eine Korrelation zwischen Hypoxie- und TRAIL-Resistenz deutlich wurde und die Hypothese einer ausgeprägten Kreuzresistenz stärkt. Ein Zusammenhang zwischen TRAIL-Sensitivität und TRAIL-Todes- bzw. –Decoy-Rezeptor-Expression konnte indes nicht hergestellt werden. Der Vergleich von konventionellen Therapienansätzen (Gamma-Bestrahlung) mit neuartigen Wirkstoffklassen (BH3-Mimetika und Proteasomeninhibitoren) zeigte, dass Gamma-Bestrahlung lediglich in TRAIL-sensitiven Zellen synergistisch mit TRAIL wirkte, während die BH3-Mimetika den TRAIL-induzierten Zelltod sowohl in TRAIL-sensitiven als auch –resistenten Zellen signifikant erhöhten. Diese Befunde legen nahe, dass die hohen Bcl-2- und Bcl xL-Proteinlevel verschiedene Signalwege hemmen, die an den Mitochondrien konvergieren und dadurch die Apoptose- bzw. Therapie-Resistenz maligner Gliome steigern. Der Einsatz der Proteasomeninhibitoren MG132 und Epoxomicin erwies sich vergleichsweise als am effizientesten: Beide Substanzen vervielfachten p53-unabhängig den TRAIL-induzierten Zelltod in TRAIL-sensitiven Gliomzellen und reaktivierten darüber hinaus potent die TRAIL-induzierte Apoptose in den TRAIL-resistenten Zelllinien. Microarray- und semi-quantitative RT-PCR-Analysen ergaben eine potente transkriptionelle Aktivierung des TRAIL-Rezeptors DR5 und der Stress-induzierten Transkriptionsfaktoren CHOP und c-Jun. Weitere Untersuchungen mit Hilfe von chemischen Inhibitoren und RNA-Interferenz zeigten, dass die CHOP-unabhängige, JNK/c-Jun-Signalwegs-vermittelte Aktivierung von DR5 eine maßgebliche Rolle bei der Proteasomeninhibitor-induzierten Sensitivierung von Gliomzellen für TRAIL spielt. Zusammengenommen legen die vorgelegten Befunde nahe, dass neue Ansätze basierend auf TRAIL oder agonistischen TRAIL-Rezeptor-Antikörpern in Kombination mit Proteasomeninhibitoren oder BH3-Mimetika vielversprechende Strategien zur Überwindung der Therapieresistenz maligner Gliome darstellen.
The ability to escape apoptosis or programmed cell death is a hallmark of human cancers, for example pancreatic cancer. This can promote tumorigenesis, since too little cell death by apoptosis disturbs tissue homeostasis. Additionally, defective apoptosis signaling is the underlying cause of failure to respond to current treatment approaches, since therapy-mediated antitumor activity requires the intactness of apoptosis signaling pathways in cancer cells. Thus, the elucidation of defects in the regulation of apoptosis in pancreatic carcinoma can result in the identification of novel targets for therapeutic interference and for exploitation for cancer drug discovery. Keywords: apoptosis; pancreatic cancer; TRAIL; IAPs; mitochondria
Burkitt's lymphoma (BL) is a highly aggressive form of B-cell non-Hodgkin's lymphoma. The clinical outcome in children with BL has improved over the last years but the prognosis for adults is still poor, highlighting the need for novel treatment strategies. Here, we report that the combinational treatment with the Smac mimetic BV6 and TRAIL triggers necroptosis in BL when caspases are blocked by zVAD.fmk (TBZ treatment). The sensitivity of BL cells to TBZ correlates with MLKL expression. We demonstrate that necroptotic signaling critically depends on MLKL, since siRNA-induced knockdown and CRISPR/Cas9-mediated knockout of MLKL profoundly protect BL cells from TBZ-induced necroptosis. Conversely, MLKL overexpression in cell lines expressing low levels of MLKL leads to necroptosis induction, which can be rescued by pharmacological inhibitors, highlighting the important role of MLKL for necroptosis execution. Importantly, the methylation status analysis of the MLKL promoter reveals a correlation between methylation and MLKL expression. Thus, MLKL is epigenetically regulated in BL and might serve as a prognostic marker for treatment success of necroptosis-based therapies. These findings have crucial implications for the development of new treatment options for BL.
Tubulin-binding agents such as taxol, vincristine or vinblastine are well-established drugs in clinical treatment of metastatic cancer. However, because of their highly complex chemical structures, the synthesis and hence the supply issues are still quite challenging. Here we set on stage pretubulysin, a chemically accessible precursor of tubulysin that was identified as a potent microtubule-binding agent produced by myxobacteria. Although much simpler in chemical structure, pretubulysin abrogates proliferation and long-term survival as well as anchorage-independent growth, and also induces anoikis and apoptosis in invasive tumor cells equally potent to tubulysin. Moreover, pretubulysin posseses in vivo efficacy shown in a chicken chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model with T24 bladder tumor cells, in a mouse xenograft model using MDA-MB-231 mammary cancer cells and finally in a model of lung metastasis induced by 4T1 mouse breast cancer cells. Pretubulysin induces cell death via the intrinsic apoptosis pathway by abrogating the expression of pivotal antiapoptotic proteins, namely Mcl-1 and Bcl-xL, and shows distinct chemosensitizing properties in combination with TRAIL in two- and three-dimensional cell culture models. Unraveling the underlying signaling pathways provides novel information: pretubulysin induces proteasomal degradation of Mcl-1 by activation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (especially JNK (c-Jun N-terminal kinase)) and phosphorylation of Mcl-1, which is then targeted by the SCF(Fbw7) E3 ubiquitin ligase complex for ubiquitination and degradation. In sum, we designate the microtubule-destabilizing compound pretubulysin as a highly promising novel agent for mono treatment and combinatory treatment of invasive cancer.
Novel insights into the synergistic interaction of Bortezomib and TRAIL: tBid provides the link
(2011)
The proteasome inhibitor Bortezomib has been identified as a potent enhancer of TRAIL-induced apoptosis in several human cancers. However, the identification of the underlying molecular mechanisms of this synergistic cell death induction has been ongoing over the last years. A recent study identifies a new mechanism of action for the synergism of TRAIL and Bortezomib.
Apoptosis represents one of the most important forms of cell death in higher organisms and is typically dysregulated in human cancers, including pediatric tumors. This implies that ineffective engagement of cell death programs can contribute to tumor formation as well as tumor progression. In addition, the majority of cytotoxic therapeutic principles rely on the activation of cell death signaling pathways in cancer cells. Blockade of signaling networks that lead to cell death can therefore confer treatment resistance. A variety of genetic and epigenetic events as well as dysfunctional regulation of signaling networks have been identified as underlying causes of cell death resistance in childhood malignancies. Apoptosis pathways can be therapeutically exploited by enhancing proapoptotic signals or by neutralizing antiapoptotic programs. The challenge in the coming years will be to successfully transfer this knowledge into the development of innovative treatment approaches for children with cancer.
Smac mimetics antagonize IAP proteins, which are highly expressed in several cancers. Recent reports indicate that Smac mimetics trigger a broad cytokine response and synergize with immune modulators to induce cell death. Here, we identify a differential requirement of TRAIL or TNFα as mediators of IFNα/Smac mimetic-induced cell death depending on the cellular context. Subtoxic concentrations of Smac mimetics cooperate with IFNα to induce cell death in various solid tumor cell lines in a highly synergistic manner as determined by combination index. Mechanistic studies show that IFNα/BV6 cotreatment promotes the formation of a caspase-8-activating complex together with the adaptor protein FADD and RIP1. Assembly of this RIP1/FADD/caspase-8 complex represents a critical event, since RIP1 silencing inhibits IFNα/BV6-induced cell death. Strikingly, pharmacological inhibition of paracrine/autocrine TNFα signaling by the TNFα scavenger Enbrel rescues HT-29 colon carcinoma cells, but not A172 glioblastoma cells from IFNα/BV6-induced cell death. By comparison, A172 cells are significantly protected against IFNα/BV6 treatment by blockage of TRAIL signaling through genetic silencing of TRAIL or its cognate receptor TRAIL receptor 2 (DR5). Despite this differential requirement of TNFα and TRAIL signaling, mRNA and protein expression is increased by IFNα/BV6 cotreatment in both cell lines. Interestingly, A172 cells turn out to be resistant to exogenously added recombinant TNFα even in the presence of BV6, whereas they display a high sensitivity towards TRAIL/BV6. In contrast, BV6 efficiently sensitizes HT-29 cells to TNFα while TRAIL only had limited efficacy. This demonstrates that a differential sensitivity towards TRAIL or TNFα determines the dependency on either death receptor ligand for IFNα/Smac mimetic-induced cell death. Thus, by concomitant stimulation of both death receptor systems IFNα/Smac mimetic combination treatment is an effective strategy to induce cell death in TNFα- or TRAIL-responsive cancers.
To search for novel strategies to enhance the tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL)-induced apoptosis pathways in glioblastoma, we used the B-cell lymphoma 2/Bcl2-like 2-inhibitor ABT-737. Here we report that ABT-737 and TRAIL cooperate to induce apoptosis in several glioblastoma cell lines in a highly synergistic manner (combination index <0.1). Interestingly, the concerted action of ABT-737 and TRAIL to trigger the accumulation of truncated Bid (tBid) at mitochondrial membranes is identified as a key underlying mechanism. ABT-737 and TRAIL cooperate to cleave BH3-interacting domain death agonist (Bid) into its active fragment tBid, leading to increased accumulation of tBid at mitochondrial membranes. Coinciding with tBid accumulation, the activation of Bcl2-associated X protein (Bax), loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome-c and second mitochondria-derived activator of caspase (Smac) into the cytosol and caspase activation are strongly increased in cotreated cells. Of note, knockdown of Bid significantly decreases ABT-737- and TRAIL-mediated Bax activation and apoptosis. Also, caspase-3 silencing reduces ABT-737- and TRAIL-induced Bid cleavage and apoptosis, indicating that a caspase-3-driven, mitochondrial feedback loop contributes to Bid processing. Importantly, ABT-737 profoundly enhances TRAIL-triggered apoptosis in primary cultured glioblastoma cells derived from tumor material, underlining the clinical relevance. Also, ABT-737 acts in concert with TRAIL to suppress tumor growth in an in vivo glioblastoma model. In conclusion, the rational combination of ABT-737 and TRAIL cooperates to trigger tBid mitochondrial accumulation and apoptosis. This approach presents a promising strategy for targeting the apoptosis pathways in glioblastoma, which warrants further investigation.