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Acute myeloid leukemia (AML) is one of the most frequently occurring and fatal types of leukemia. Initiated by genetic alterations in hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells, rapidly proliferating cancer cells (leukemic blasts) infiltrate the bone marrow and damage healthy hematopoiesis. Subgroups of AML are defined by underlying molecular and cytogenetic abnormalities, which are decisive for treatment and prognosis. For AML patients that can be intensively treated, the first line treatment remains a combination of cytarabine and anthracycline, which was developed in the 1970s. While this treatment regimen clears the disease and reinstates normal hematopoiesis (complete remission, CR) in 60% to 80% of patients below the age of 60, CR rates in patients above the age of 60 are only 40% to 50%. Relapse and refractory disease are the major cause of death of AML patients, despite large efforts to improve risk-adjusted post-remission therapy with further chemotherapy cycles and, if possible, allogeneic bone marrow transplantation. Elderly patients are particularly difficult to treat because of age-related comorbidities and because their disease tends to relapse more often than the disease of younger patients. Thus, the cure rates of AML vary with age, with 5-year survival rates of about 50% in young patients, and less than 20% in patients above the age of 65 years. With the median age of AML patients being 68 years, the need for novel therapeutic options is immense. The recent approval of eight new agents (venetoclax, midostaurin, gilteritinib, glasdegib, ivosidenib, enasidenib, gemtuzumab ozogamicin and CPX-351 (liposomal cytarabine and daunorubicin)) has added considerably to the therapeutic armamentarium of AML and has increased cure rates in specific subgroups of AML. However, the high heterogeneity among patients, clonal evolution and commonly occurring drug resistance, which cause the high relapse rates, remain a substantial problem in the treatment of AML. Therefore, a better understanding of currently used therapeutics and further development of novel therapeutics is urgently needed.
In recent years, attention has increasingly focused on therapeutic strategies to interfere with the metabolic requirements of cancer cells. The last three decades have provided extensive insights into the diversity and flexibility of AML metabolism. AML cells use different sources of nutrients compared to normal hematopoietic progenitor cells and reprogram their metabolic pathways to fulfill their exquisite anabolic and energetic needs. As a result, they develop high metabolic plasticity that enables them to thrive in the bone marrow microenvironment, where oxygen and nutrient availability are subject to constant change.
Cancer cells, specifically AML cells, have a strong dependency for the amino acid glutamine. Glutamine serves in energy production, redox control, cell signaling as well as an important nitrogen source. The only enzyme capable of de novo glutamine synthesis is glutamine synthetase (GS). GS catalyzes glutamine production from glutamate and ammonium. In AML, the metabolic role and dependency of GS is poorly understood. Here, we investigated the effects of GS deletion on AML growth, and its functional relevance in AML metabolism. Genetic deletion of GS resulted in a significant decrease of cell growth in vitro, and impaired leukemia progression in vivo in a xenotransplantation mouse model. Interestingly, the dependency of AML cell growth on GS was shown to be independent of its functional role in glutamine synthesis. Glutamine starvation did not increase the dependency of the AML cells on GS, nor did increased glutamine availability rescue the GS-knockout-associated growth disadvantage. Instead, functional studies revealed the role of GS in the detoxification of ammonium. GS-deficient cells showed elevated ammonium secretion as well as a higher sensitivity towards the toxic metabolite. Exogenous provision of 15N-labeled ammonium was detoxified by GS-driven incorporation into glutamine. Studies on cells that had gained resistance to GS-knockout-mediated growth inhibition indicated enzymes involved in the urea cycle and the arginine biogenesis pathway to compensate for a loss of GS. Together, these findings unveiled GS as an important ammonium scavenger in AML.
Clinical studies on AML patients revealed increased ammonium concentrations in the blast-infiltrated bone marrow compared to peripheral blood. In line with this finding, proteome and transcriptome analysis of AML blasts showed a significant upregulation of GS in AML compared to healthy progenitors, further indicating its importance in ammonium detoxification.
Analyzing pathways that contribute to ammonium production revealed protein uptake followed by amino acid catabolism as a yet not identified mechanism supporting AML growth. Protein endocytosis and subsequent proteolytic degradation were shown to rescue AML cells from otherwise growth-inhibiting glucose or amino acid depletion. Furthermore, protein metabolization led to the reactivation of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) signaling pathway, which was deactivated upon leucine and glutamine depletion, revealing protein consumption as an important alternative source of amino acids in AML.
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Angiogenesis, the process by which endothelial cells (ECs) form new blood vessels from existing ones, is intimately linked to the tissue’s metabolic milieu and often occurs at nutrient-deficient sites. However, ECs rely on sufficient metabolic resources to support growth and proliferation. How endothelial nutrient acquisition and usage are regulated is unknown. Here we show that these processes are instructed by Yes-associated protein 1 (YAP)/WW domain-containing transcription regulator 1 (WWTR1/TAZ)-transcriptional enhanced associate domain (TEAD): a transcriptional module whose function is highly responsive to changes in the tissue environment. ECs lacking YAP/TAZ or their transcriptional partners, TEAD1, 2 and 4 fail to divide, resulting in stunted vascular growth in mice. Conversely, activation of TAZ, the more abundant paralogue in ECs, boosts proliferation, leading to vascular hyperplasia. We find that YAP/TAZ promote angiogenesis by fuelling nutrient-dependent mTORC1 signalling. By orchestrating the transcription of a repertoire of cell-surface transporters, including the large neutral amino acid transporter SLC7A5, YAP/TAZ-TEAD stimulate the import of amino acids and other essential nutrients, thereby enabling mTORC1 activation. Dissociating mTORC1 from these nutrient inputs—elicited by the loss of Rag GTPases—inhibits mTORC1 activity and prevents YAP/TAZ-dependent vascular growth. Together, these findings define a pivotal role for YAP/TAZ-TEAD in controlling endothelial mTORC1 and illustrate the essentiality of coordinated nutrient fluxes in the vasculature.
The DNA damage response (DDR) is a vast network of molecules that preserves genome integrity and allow the faithful transmission of genetic information in human cells. While the usual response to the detection of DNA lesions in cells involves the control of cell-cycle checkpoints, repair proteins or apoptosis, alterations of the repair processes can lead to cellular dysfunction, diseases, or cancer. Besides, cancer patients with DDR alterations often show poor survival and chemoresistance. Despite the progress made in recent years in identifying genes and proteins involved in DDR and their roles in cellular physiology and pathology, the question of the involvement of DDR in metabolism remains unclear. It remains to study the metabolites associated with specific repair pathways or alterations and to investigate whether differences exist depending on cellular origin. The identification of DDR-related metabolic pathways and of the pathways that cause metabolic reprogramming in DDR-deficient cells may produce new targets for the development of new therapies.
In this thesis, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) was used to assess the metabolic consequence of the loss of two central DNA repair proteins with importance in diseases context, ATM and RNase H2, in haematological cells. An increase in intracellular taurine was found in RNase H2- and ATM-deficient cells compared to wild-type cells for these genes and in cells after exposition to a source of DNA damage. The rise in taurine does not appear to result from an increase in its biosynthesis from cysteine, but more likely from other cellular processes such as degradation pathways.
Overall, evidence for metabolic reprogramming in haematological cells with faults in DNA repair resulting from ATM or RNase H2 deficiencies or upon exposition to a source of DNA damage is presented in this study.
Flavin-based electron bifurcation is a long hidden mechanism of energetic coupling present mainly in anaerobic bacteria and archaea that suffer from energy limitations in their environment. Electron bifurcation saves precious cellular ATP and enables lithotrophic life of acetate-forming (acetogenic) bacteria that grow on H2 + CO2 by the only pathway that combines CO2 fixation with ATP synthesis, the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway. The energy barrier for the endergonic reduction of NADP+, an electron carrier in the Wood–Ljungdahl pathway, with NADH as reductant is overcome by an electron-bifurcating, ferredoxin-dependent transhydrogenase (Nfn) but many acetogens lack nfn genes. We have purified a ferredoxin-dependent NADH:NADP+ oxidoreductase from Sporomusa ovata, characterized the enzyme biochemically and identified the encoding genes. These studies led to the identification of a novel, Sporomusa type Nfn (Stn), built from existing modules of enzymes such as the soluble [Fe–Fe] hydrogenase, that is widespread in acetogens and other anaerobic bacteria.
Patient therapy is based mainly on a combination of diagnosis, suitable monitoring or support devices and drug treatment and is usually employed for a pre-existing disease condition. Therapy remains predominantly symptom-based, although it is increasingly clear that individual treatment is possible and beneficial. However, reasonable precision medicine can only be realized with the coordinated use of diagnostics, devices and drugs in combination with extensive databases (4Ds), an approach that has not yet found sufficient implementation. The practical combination of 4Ds in health care is progressing, but several obstacles still hamper their extended use in precision medicine.
The Wood-Ljungdahl pathway of anaerobic CO(2) fixation with hydrogen as reductant is considered a candidate for the first life-sustaining pathway on earth because it combines carbon dioxide fixation with the synthesis of ATP via a chemiosmotic mechanism. The acetogenic bacterium Acetobacterium woodii uses an ancient version of the pathway that has only one site to generate the electrochemical ion potential used to drive ATP synthesis, the ferredoxin-fueled, sodium-motive Rnf complex. However, hydrogen-based ferredoxin reduction is endergonic, and how the steep energy barrier is overcome has been an enigma for a long time. We have purified a multimeric [FeFe]-hydrogenase from A. woodii containing four subunits (HydABCD) which is predicted to have one [H]-cluster, three [2Fe2S]-, and six [4Fe4S]-clusters consistent with the experimental determination of 32 mol of Fe and 30 mol of acid-labile sulfur. The enzyme indeed catalyzed hydrogen-based ferredoxin reduction, but required NAD(+) for this reaction. NAD(+) was also reduced but only in the presence of ferredoxin. NAD(+) and ferredoxin reduction both required flavin. Spectroscopic analyses revealed that NAD(+) and ferredoxin reduction are strictly coupled and that they are reduced in a 1:1 stoichiometry. Apparently, the multimeric hydrogenase of A. woodii is a soluble energy-converting hydrogenase that uses electron bifurcation to drive the endergonic ferredoxin reduction by coupling it to the exergonic NAD(+) reduction.
Der Extrakt des indischen Weihrauchs (Boswellia serrata) ist eines der wenigen pflanzlichen Heilmittel, dem von der EMEA der Orphan Drug Status zur Behandlung des peritumoralen Hirnödems verliehen wurde. Boswellia serrata Extrakt und die Boswelliasäuren, die wirksamen Inhaltsstoffe des Weihrauchs, zeigten in zahlreichen in vitro-Untersuchungen antiinflammatorische und antitumorale Wirksamkeit. Diese Wirkungen konnten auch in mehreren klinischen Studien nachgewiesen werden. Untersuchungen zum pharmakokinetischen Verhalten der Boswelliasäuren zeigten, dass Weihrauch nur eine geringe orale Bioverfügbarkeit aufweist. Ziel der Arbeit war es daher, den Einfluss von Löslichkeit, Metabolismus und Permeabilität auf die Bioverfügbarkeit der Boswelliasäuren zu untersuchen. Weihrauchextrakte sind in wässrigen Medien schlecht löslich. In einer Rattenstudie wurde deshalb untersucht, inwieweit die verbesserte Löslichkeit des Extrakts in einer nanoskaligen Boswellia serrata Formulierung zu einer verbesserten Bioverfügbarkeit führt. Eine bestehende LC-MS-Methode zur Bestimmung von KBA und AKBA aus Plasma und Hirngewebe wurde optimiert und revalidiert. Zur Vervollständigung des pharmakokinetischen Profils wurden die KBA- und AKBA-Konzentrationen auch in der Leber der Ratten bestimmt. Die analytische Methode wurde hierfür nach den anerkannten FDA-Richtlinien erfolgreich validiert. Die Plasma- und Leberkonzentrationen waren jedoch bei den Ratten, die die nanoskalige Boswellia serrata Formulierung bekamen, in den ersten Stunden nach der oralen Verabreichung nicht signifikant höher als bei den Ratten, die den unbehandelten Extrakt erhielten. Die in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Untersuchungen zur metabolischen Stabilität von KBA und AKBA in Rattenlebermikrosomen (RLM), Humanlebermikrosomen (HLM) und Rattenhepatozyten (RH) zeigten, dass KBA einer stark ausgeprägten hepatischen Metabolisierung unterliegt. AKBA hingegen erscheint metabolisch relativ stabil. Die Identifizierung der Metabolite ergab, dass Boswelliasäuren in RLM hauptsächlich Phase-I-Metabolite wie mono-, di-, und seltener auch trihydroxylierte Metabolite bilden. Von AaBA und AbBA konnten keine Metabolite detektiert werden. Das metabolische Profil von KBA und AKBA in RH war mit dem in RLM vergleichbar. In einer Rattenstudie konnten dann im Plasma und in der Leber jedoch nicht im Hirn der Ratten KBA-Metabolite nachgewiesen werden, während für AKBA in vivo keine Metabolite detektiert wurden. Phase-II-Metabolite konnten weder von KBA noch von AKBA nachgewiesen werden. Bisher war man davon ausgegangen, dass die niedrigen Plasmakonzentrationen von AKBA in vivo durch eine Deacetylierung zu KBA zustande kommen. Diese These konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit widerlegt werden. Im Caco-2-Zellmodell zeigte KBA eine mittlere Permeabilität. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass KBA und AKBA offensichtlich keinem Efflux-Transport unterliegen. AKBA erwies sich sowohl in absorptiver und sekretorischer Richtung als auch bei 4° C als schlecht permeabel. Da KBA und AKBA die Aktivität des ABC-Transportproteins Pgp modulieren, wurde in dieser Arbeit überprüft, ob diese beiden Boswelliasäuren auch Substrate des Pgp sind. Die Permeation von KBA und AKBA war in Anwesenheit des Pgp-Inhibitors Verapamil jedoch nicht signifikant verändert, was darauf hindeutet, dass KBA und AKBA keine Pgp-Substrate sind. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit bilden einen wichtigen Baustein zur weiteren Aufklärung des pharmakokinetischen Verhaltens von KBA und AKBA. So ist die begrenzte systemische Verfügbarkeit von KBA auf eine mittlere Absorption aus dem Gastrointestinaltrakt in Kombination mit der umfangreichen hepatischen Metabolisierung zurückzuführen. Die niedrigen systemischen Konzentrationen von AKBA hingegen liegen eher in der schlechten Absorption begründet. Auf der Basis der extensiven Metabolisierung von KBA und der schlechten Permeabilität von AKBA stellt sich im Allgemeinen die Frage nach dem tatsächlichen Wirkmechanismus von KBA und AKBA. In keiner pharmakokinetischen Studie konnten die in vitro pharmakologisch aktiven Konzentrationen dieser beiden Boswelliasäuren erzielt werden. Es ist daher nicht auszuschließen, dass auch andere Wirkmechanismen als die bisher beschriebenen existieren. Unter dem Gesichtspunkt möglicher Arzneimittelinteraktionen wurde die Wirkung von KBA und AKBA auf MRP2 und OATP1B3 in zwei zellbasierten Assays untersucht. Es konnte gezeigt werden, dass KBA und AKBA die Aktivität von MRP2 und OATP1B3 in Konzentrationen modulieren, welche im Rahmen dieser Arbeit in der Leber von Ratten nachgewiesen wurden. Da Weihrauchextrakt häufig in Comedikation verwendet wird, sollte im Hinblick auf die Arzneimittelsicherheit in Zukunft geprüft werden, ob es zu praxisrelevanten Arzneimittelinteraktionen mit klinisch relevanten MRP2- und OATP1B3-Substraten kommt.