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The mother tongue at school
(2023)
This paper focuses on a key contradiction in nineteenth century nationalist ideology, namely the opposition between the emphasis on the sacred status of the mother tongue, on the one hand, and the use of universal mandatory schooling as a means of homogenization, on the other. The influential philologist Jacob Grimm insisted that only people whose mother tongue was German counted as members of the German nation; the mother tongue was the key criterion of authentic belonging. Yet Grimm also realized that mandatory schooling imposed a uniform language across a wide territory, wiping out local dialects and effectively giving shape to a more linguistically unified people. He thus witnessed how modern mass instruction forged a more standardized culture at the expense of the more natural-seeming transmission of language within families. In Grimm's writings on education, the valorization of the mother is continually disturbed by the presence of a surrogate figure, the school teacher.
This article contributes to the European history of musical nationalism with regard to operatic debates in the eighteenth century. The investigation reveals that within operatic debates national categories were used for all levels of the multimedia genre of opera: music, text, composer, and actor. Moreover, the relationship between national character and national taste was a highly critical point: there was general agreement that only outstanding aesthetic abilities enable composers to go beyond their own particular national character. Only in this respect could aesthetic abilities stand above national taste, which was said to be shaped by national character.
Apresentando um breve histórico da ideia de organismo ao longo do século XVIII, tentaremos delinear a trajetória percorrida por ela até o momento em que se tornaria um elemento fundamental no debate sobre a nacionalidade russa promovido pela elite letrada do país após as Guerras Napoleônicas. Nesse trajeto, um papel fundamental é ocupado pelas ideias desenvolvidas pelo Romantismo alemão - em particular as dos filósofos J. G. Herder e, sobretudo, F. W. J. Schelling. Assim, buscaremos mostrar como alguns raciocínios oriundos da sua chamada "Filosofia da Identidade", e expressos em obras como "Ideias para uma Filosofia da Natureza" e "Filosofia da Arte", foram imprescindíveis para que intelectuais e escritores russos pudessem propugnar um projeto artístico e cultural característico para o seu próprio país.
The Austrian poet Franz Grillparzer is often presented in scholarly literature as an opponent of nationalism. Indeed, Grillparzer did oppose nationally motivated separatist tendencies, which he viewed as a threat to the existence of the supranational Habsburg Monarchy. However, his tragedy 'König Ottokars Glück und Ende' includes clear examples of the early Habsburg ideology which emerged along with the Austrian Empire during the Napoleonic Wars (a time of nationalist tensions) and which - at least initially - was imbued with a form of German Romantic nationalism. This ideology is displayed by the character of Rudolf von Habsburg, who - in the spirit of Romantic nationalism - is depicted as the embodiment of Germany. Rudolf's fervent Germanness - which appears to have been one of the reasons behind Grillparzer's problems with censorship under the Metternich regime - is not only evident in the character's words, but also in the clothes he wears. The grey coat that is one of Rudolf's most distinctive features may be a reference to what was known as an 'Old German' folk costume ('Altdeutsche Tracht'); after the Napoleonic Wars, this garment became a symbol used by the German nationalist student movement known as the 'Burschenschaftler'.
Im Folgenden werde ich die Rückkehr der Orthodoxie in drei Schritten am georgischen Beispiel erörtern. Im ersten Schritt werde ich die Rückkehr der Orthodoxie im Problemfeld des säkularisierten Staates verorten und einen Vergleich mit der Repolitisierung des Islam ziehen. Im zweiten Schritt werde ich die Rückkehr der Orthodoxie als nationalistische Ideologie beschreiben. Im dritten Schritt werde ich dieses Comeback aus der Erfahrung des Totalitarismus zu verstehen versuchen.
Dies ist der 17. Artikel in unserer Blogreihe Trouble on the Far-Right.
Um eines gleich deutlich zu machen: Über rechtsradikale Tendenzen in der Ukraine zu schreiben ist ein Drahtseilakt. Schließlich ist die Debatte in einen größeren Kontext eingebettet: Seit den Ereignissen auf dem Maidan 2014 und dem anschließenden Regime-Change erheben pro-russische Medien die sachlich schwer begründbare Beschuldigung, dass der Westen den Charakter der „faschistischen Junta in Kiew“ verkenne. Auf der anderen Seite bagatellisieren einige Publikationen die real existierenden rechten Umtriebe in der Ukraine beträchtlich. So handelt man sich schnell den Vorwurf ein, wahlweise „die faschistischen Ukrainer“ zu protegieren oder sich „den imperialistischen Russen“ anzubiedern. An dieser Stelle bleibt die notwendige Aufgabe Meinungen von Fakten zu trennen.
Die bedeutendste Kraft der parlamentarischen Rechten in der Ukraine ist die „Freiheitspartei“ Swoboda. Ihre Beteiligung an der Übergangsregierung nach den Maidan-Protesten galt einigen Beobachtern als Beweis für einen Rechtsruck in der Ukraine. Mittlerweile verfügt diese Partei nicht einmal mehr über eine parlamentarische Fraktion. Wie ist es dazu gekommen? Welche Dynamiken stehen dahinter? Ist letztendlich alles in trockenen Tüchern und die Gefahr von rechts gebannt?
Den 'Kampf der Kulturen' ein weiteres Mal genauer zu betrachten lohnt also der Mühe, wird doch auf diese Weise der Blick auf Thematiken gelenkt, die gegenwärtig in der Diskussion sind. Dabei ist insbesondere an Momente der Verbindung von (Neo-)Nationalismus und einem "Rassismus ohne 'Rassen'", an Fragen der Identitätskonstruktion sowie an die Huntington'schen Haupt- Konfliktparteien Westen und Islam zu denken. Fragen der räumlich-geographischen Verortung des Subjekts sind gerade in 'Migrationsdebatten' entscheidend und spielen ebenso in rassistischen Konstruktionen des 'Anderen' eine existentielle Rolle; auch – und das ist ausschlaggebend – für die gegenwärtige politische und gesellschaftliche Situation über den Rahmen der Hauptlinien, die Huntington aufzeichnet, hinaus.
When, some two centuries ago, German Romantics turned their backs on modernity – industrialisation, urbanisation, commerce and secularisation – they turned to ancient India. For them, India exemplified the primordial unity of mankind with this and the afterworld. For sections of the emerging nationalist movement in Germany, found the deployment of India handy to question the cultural hegemony, and eventually break the political dominance, of France. They tried to surpass the French, who claimed the ancient Roman heritage, by claiming an even older heritage for the Germans. Friedrich Schlegel for example suggested that the German language, and not the French, stood in unbroken continuity with ancient Sanskrit. For Romantics such as he, Sanskrit, the oldest surviving Indo-European language, was closest to the language of original divine revelation. This lead Schlegel to romanticise India in a way that stood in marked contrast to the Orientalist clichés current in other parts of Europe at the time. For him, the link between Sanskrit and German made Germany the true oriental self of Europe. The importance of this particular representation of India for the German national movement is underlined by the great number of university chairs that sprang up in the course of the nineteenth century: twenty two in Germany as opposed to only three in the United Kingdom. This paper explores the particular kind of ‘inverse’ Orientalism of the Germans in the context of its recent post-colonial critique.