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T Helper Cell Lineage-Defining Transcription Factors: Potent Targets for Specific GVHD Therapy?
(2022)
Allogenic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) represents a potent and potentially curative treatment for many hematopoietic malignancies and hematologic disorders in adults and children. The donor-derived immunity, elicited by the stem cell transplant, can prevent disease relapse but is also responsible for the induction of graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The pathophysiology of acute GVHD is not completely understood yet. In general, acute GVHD is driven by the inflammatory and cytotoxic effect of alloreactive donor T cells. Since several experimental approaches indicate that CD4 T cells play an important role in initiation and progression of acute GVHD, the contribution of the different CD4 T helper (Th) cell subtypes in the pathomechanism and regulation of the disease is a central point of current research. Th lineages derive from naïve CD4 T cell progenitors and lineage commitment is initiated by the surrounding cytokine milieu and subsequent changes in the transcription factor (TF) profile. Each T cell subtype has its own effector characteristics, immunologic function, and lineage specific cytokine profile, leading to the association with different immune responses and diseases. Acute GVHD is thought to be mainly driven by the Th1/Th17 axis, whereas Treg cells are attributed to attenuate GVHD effects. As the differentiation of each Th subset highly depends on the specific composition of activating and repressing TFs, these present a potent target to alter the Th cell landscape towards a GVHD-ameliorating direction, e.g. by inhibiting Th1 and Th17 differentiation. The finding, that targeting of Th1 and Th17 differentiation appears more effective for GVHD-prevention than a strategy to inhibit Th1 and Th17 cytokines supports this concept. In this review, we shed light on the current advances of potent TF inhibitors to alter Th cell differentiation and consecutively attenuate GVHD. We will focus especially on preclinical studies and outcomes of TF inhibition in murine GVHD models. Finally, we will point out the possible impact of a Th cell subset-specific immune modulation in context of GVHD.
Hematopoietic differentiation is controlled by key transcription factors, which regulate stem cell functions and differentiation. TAL1 is a central transcription factor for hematopoietic stem cell development in the embryo and for gene regulation during erythroid/megakaryocytic differentiation. Knowledge of the target genes controlled by a given transcription factor is important to understand its contribution to normal development and disease. To uncover direct target genes of TAL1 we used high affinity streptavidin/biotin-based chromatin precipitation (Strep-CP) followed by Strep-CP on ChIP analysis using ChIP promoter arrays. We identified 451 TAL1 target genes in K562 cells. Furthermore, we analysed the regulation of one of these genes, the catalytic subunit beta of protein kinase A (PRKACB), during megakaryopoiesis of K562 and primary human CD34+ stem cell/progenitor cells. We found that TAL1 together with hematopoietic transcription factors RUNX1 and GATA1 binds to the promoter of the isoform 3 of PRKACB (Cβ3). During megakaryocytic differentiation a coactivator complex on the Cβ3 promoter, which includes WDR5 and p300, is replaced with a corepressor complex. In this manner, activating chromatin modifications are removed and expression of the PRKACB-Cβ3 isoform during megakaryocytic differentiation is reduced. Our data uncover a role of the TAL1 complex in controlling differential isoform expression of PRKACB. These results reveal a novel function of TAL1, RUNX1 and GATA1 in the transcriptional control of protein kinase A activity, with implications for cellular signalling control during differentiation and disease.
Die Hodgkin/Reed-Sternberg Zellen des klassischen Hodgkin Lymphoms stammen von Keimzentrums-B-Zellen ab. Dennoch prägen sie fast keine B-Zell-spezifischen Gene aus, stattdessen ko-exprimieren sie Marker anderer hämatopoetischer Linien. Die Ursache für den Verlust des B-Zell-Phänotyps ist weitestgehend unbekannt, da die Transkriptionsfaktoren E2A und PAX5, die in reifen B-Zellen zur Aufrechterhaltung der Expression B-Zell-spezifischer Gene essentiell sind, von primären HRS Zellen ausgeprägt werden. Allerdings wird PAX5 im Vergleich zu normalen B-Zellen deutlich schwächer exprimiert. E2A wird durch direkte Interaktion mit dem inhibitor of DNA binding, ID2, negativ reguliert. ID2 besitzt eine bHLH-Struktur und dimerisiert mit Transkriptionsfaktoren. Da ihm jedoch die DNA-bindende Domäne fehlt, wird die Bindung der Heterodimere an die DNA verhindert und die Transkriptionsfaktoren somit inaktiviert. In hämatopoetischen Zellen scheint die ID2-Expression die B-Zell-Entwicklung und auch die Expression B-Zell-spezifischer Gene zu unterdrücken und stattdessen die Ausprägung von Genen anderer Linien zu unterstützen. In reifen B-Zellen wird ID2 während der Plasmazellentwicklung bei gleichzeitigem Verlust der Expression B-Zell-spezifischer Gene stark exprimiert. In der vorliegenden Arbeit konnte gezeigt werden, dass ID2, das in normalen B-Zellen nicht detektiert werden konnte, dagegen in allen HL-Fällen nicht nur auf RNA-Ebene, sondern auch auf Proteinebene stark exprimiert wird. Ko-Immunopräzipitation des E2A mit ID2 aus HL-Zelllinien zeigte die Interaktion und somit vermutlich auch die transkriptionelle Inaktivierung des E2A durch ID2, wodurch es zum Verlust der Expression B-Zell-spezifischer Gene kommt. Darüber hinaus wird PAX5 zusammen mit EBF durch E2A induziert. So führt die ID2-vermittelte E2A-Inaktivierung im HL vermutlich dazu, dass ID2 via EBF auch die Regulation von PAX5 beeinflusst. PAX5 spielt bei der Differenzierung eine duale Rolle, denn es aktiviert nicht nur B-Zell-spezifische Gene, sondern es unterdrückt auch die Gene anderer Linien. Demnach könnte ID2 auch an der Expression der nicht-B-Zell-spezifischen Gene im HL beteiligt sein. Darüber hinaus ist ID2 im HL durch die E2A-Inaktivierung via EBF auch möglicherweise an der schwächeren Expression des PAX5 im Vergleich zu normalen B-Zellen beteiligt. Obwohl das ID2-Protein in den HL-Zelllinien durch RNA-Interferenz erfolgreich reduziert werden konnte, zeigte sich allerdings weder eine Änderung der Proteinexpression der B-Zell-spezifischen Gene CD19 und CD79A noch der Gene anderer hämatopoetischer Linien GATA-3 und M-CSF-R. Unabhängig von seiner möglichen Beteiligung an der Dedifferenzierung der HRS Zellen im HL, spielt ID2 vermutlich auch eine weitere Rolle in der Pathogenese des HL. Verschiedene Interaktionen weisen darauf hin, dass ID2 auch an der Regulation des Zellzyklus beteiligt ist. Zum einen konnte in dieser Arbeit die Interaktion des ID2 mit dem HLH-Protein HEF1 zumindest in einer der HL-Zelllinien gezeigt werden. HEF1 ist ein Aktivator der Aurora Kinase 1, welche nach Aktivierung Gene phosphoryliert, die den Ablauf der Mitose begünstigen. Zum anderen konnte der negative Zellzyklusregulator p21Cip1 in HL-Zelllinien durch RNAi-vermittelte Reduktion des ID2-Proteins als ID2-Target-Gen identifiziert werden. Auch wenn die Interaktion mit RB, dem zur Familie der Pocket-Proteine gehörenden Schlüsselregulator des Zellzyklusverlaufs, in HL-Zelllinien nicht nachgewiesen werden konnte, zeigen die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit, dass die aberrante ID2-Expression offenbar an der Veränderung des Zellzyklus im HL beteiligt ist. Sie lassen jedoch noch keinen endgültigen Schluss zu. Wie in dieser Arbeit gezeigt wurde, wird ID2 ebenfalls im analplastisch großzelligen T-Zell-Lymphom aberrant exprimiert. Auch eine Interaktion mit E2A, das auch in der T-Zell-Entwicklung eine Rolle spielt, konnte gezeigt werden. Nicht zuletzt scheint demnach ID2 auch in der Dedifferenzierung des ALCL ein wichtiger Faktor zu sein. ID2 wird im HL aberrant exprimiert und es konnte die Interaktion mit E2A in den HL-Zelllinien nachgewiesen werden, wodurch die transkriptionelle Aktivität des E2A vermutlich inhibiert wird. Auch wenn in Folge der RNAi-vermittelten Herunterregulation von ID2 in den HL-Linien weder eine Re-Expression B-Zell-spezifischer Gene noch eine Beeinflussung der Expression Marker andere hämatopoetischer Linien gefunden werden konnte, spielt ID2 vermutlich dennoch eine wichtige Rolle in der Dedifferenzierung der HRS Zellen im HL. Unabhängig davon konnte der negative Zellzyklusregulator p21Cip1 als ID2-Target-Gen identifiziert und eine Interaktion mit HEF1 gezeigt werden. Demnach ist ID2 möglicherweise nicht nur an der Dedifferenzierung, sondern auch an der Dysregulation des Zellzyklus im HL beteiligt und somit ein wichtiger Faktor in der Pathogenese des HL.
The mammary gland of mice serves as a model system for studying differentiation in an adult animal. With the beginning of pregnancy the mammary epithelial cells undergo functional differentiation to produce milk for nourishment of the young. The transcription factor STAT5 mediates the cytokine-induced induction of the milk proteins during pregnancy and lactation in response to the lactogenic hormone prolactin. In addition to transcription factors that mediate transcription of their target genes by recruitment of the general transcription machinery to the DNA-regulator regions, specific post-translational modifications on the N-terminal tails of histones also influence expression. These histone modifications can affect chromatin structure, which is a main control barrier to transcription, by directly altering accessibility of the chromatin and by providing binding surfaces for protein complexes that can further modulate chromatin structure and regulate transcription. In this work N-terminal histone modification marks that associate with open, permissive and repressed chromatin where investigated in different regions of two milk protein genes during mammary gland development. Using the chromatin-immunoprecipitation (ChIP) assays increased acetylation of histone H3 and H4 at the 5’ region, promoter and transcribed regions of β-casein and whey acidic protein (WAP) gene were observed during pregnancy and lactation when these genes are expressed. The presence of these histone marks, which are associated with a relaxed chromatin structure, correlates with the recruitment of STAT5A and STAT5B to the promoter containing regulatory regions as well as the detection of the phosphorylated RNA polymerase II in the transcribed gene region. Both di- and tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 4, that mark permissive and active chromatin respectively, were enriched in tissue from pregnant and lactating mice. In comparison tri-methylation of histone H3 lysine 27, a mark associated with repressed chromatin, could be observed during all stages of mammary gland tissue investigated, but appears slightly elevated in the tissue from virgin mice when β-casein and WAP are not expressed. Together these results illustrate that the expression of the two milk proteins genes at distinct stages of mammary gland differentiation correlate with specific changes in histone modifications. In mammary gland tissue STAT5A is important for the mammary gland epithelial cell differentiation and survival during lactation. Yet many genomic target regions that STAT5A actually bind and which are involved in regulation of gene expression during lactation still remain unknown. Therefore, the second part of this thesis was focused on the identification of novel STAT5-binding sites that are differentiation specifically bound by STAT5A in mammary gland tissue during lactation. In summary, the results demonstrate that the ChIP cloning method was employed successfully for the cloning of a STAT5A library and the identification of new STAT5 targets in mammary gland tissue from lactating mice. Nine of the newly identified STAT5-binding targets were verified to differentiation specifically bind STAT5A and STAT5B in vivo during pregnancy and lactation. Even though the selection of the tested clones was biased towards STAT5-binding sites near or at known genes and for multiple STAT5 binding sites, only one out of the nine validated STAT5-binding regions is located in a traditional defined proximal promoter. Except for two STAT5-binding regions, which are located at least 10 kb from the next annotated known gene, six are located in the intronic regions of annotated mRNA or EST transcripts. Three, out of four verified STAT5-binding regions tested in reporter gene assays for functionality, display the ability to drive reporter gene activity in a STAT5 dependent manner. This transcriptional activity is due to the STAT5-binding sites within the cloned regions as determined by mutational analysis. Of special interest is a STAT5-binding region that contains one STAT5 and three STAT-like sites within a 339 bp region that is evolutionary conserved by approximately 80% between the mouse and human genome. This STAT5-binding region lies about 62 kb 5 prime of the nuclear factor I/B gene. The expression of the NFI/B mRNA transcript correlates with the in vivo association of STAT5A to the conserved region during the mammary gland differentiation. Together, these results suggest that this STAT5-binding might be a cis-regulatory region that potentially mediates STAT5 induced NFI/B gene expression in mice during lactation.
The thesis entitled „Investigations on the significance of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport for the biological function of cellular proteins" aimed to unreveal molecular mechanisms in order to improve our understanding of the impact of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport on cellular functions. Within the scope of this work, it could be shown that regulated nucleo-cytoplasmic transport of a subfamily of homeobox transcription factors controlled their intra- and intercellular transport, and thereby influencing also their transcriptional activity. This study describes a novel regulatory mechanism, which could in general play an important role for the ordered differentiation of complex organisms. Besides cis-active transport Signals, also post-translational modifications can influence the localization and biological activity of proteins in trans. In addition to the known impact of phosphorylation on the transport and activity of STAT1, experimental evidence was provided demonstrating that acetylation affected the interaction of STAT1 with NF-kB p65, and subsequently modulated the expression of apoptosis-inducing NF-kB target genes. The impact of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport on the regulation of apoptosis was underlined by showing that the evolutionary conservation of a NES within the anti-apoptotic protein survivin plays an essential role for its dual function in the inhibition of apoptosis and ordered cell division. Since survivin is considered a bona fide cancer therapy target, these results strongly encourage future work to identify molecular decoys that specifically inhibit the nuclear export of survivin as novel therapeutics. In order to further dissect the regulation of nuclear transport and to efficiently identify transport inhibitors, cell-based assays are urgently required. Therefore, the cellular assay Systems developed in this work may not only serve to identify synthetic nuclear export and Import inhibitors but may also be applied in systematic RNAi-screening approaches to identify novel components of the transport machinery. In addition, the translocation based protease- and protein-interaction biosensors can be applied in various biological Systems, in particular to identify protein-protein interaction inhibitors of cancer relevant proteins. In summary, this work does not only underline the general significance of nucleo-cytoplasmic transport for cell biology, but also demonstrates its potential for the development of novel therapies against diseases like cancer and viral infections.