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Im Frühjahr 1998 lief in New York eine Retrospektive des 47jährigen, amerikanischen Videokünstlers Bill Viola. Die Ausstellung wurde zuvor in Los Angeles gezeigt. 1999 ist sei in Europa zu sehen (Amsterdam, Frankfurt/M.), sodann in San Francisco und Chicago: ein Programm bis zum Jahr 2000. Bill Viola soll zum Klassiker werden. In New York hatte das Whitney Museum of American Art seine beiden oberen Stockwerke freigeräumt, um siebzehn Videoinstallationen Raum zu schaffen. Man betrat vollständig abgedunkelte Stockwerke, in welche die Installationsräume labyrinthisch eingebaut waren. Es gab kein anderes Licht als dasjenige, das von den Installationen selbst ausging. Man konnte sich auch von den Tönen der Installationen leiten lassen. Das Aufsichtspersonal war von Viola geschult worden, mit etwaigen Verirrten und Verwirrten im Dunkel helfend umzugehen. Die Irritationen des Orientierungssinnes waren beabsichtigt. Man sollte in eine andere Welt eintreten. Der Gang durch die siebzehn Zellen sollte zu einer Initiation in die Welt Violas, einer Reise in die kunstvollen Phantasmen eines Gehirns. Durchaus drängte sich der Eindruck auf, daß der Gang durch die labyrinthischen Installationsräumen als eine Reise durch die inneren Kammern der Imagination Violas selbst inszeniert war. Zwar richten alle Kameras ihr Objektiv immer auf irgendein Ensemble der Außenwelt und insofern ist ihnen Referenzialität technisch eingebaut. Die Ausstellungsfolge der 'Bildkammern' Violas jedoch schien so arrangiert, daß man diese Referenz zunehmend verlor. Man tauchte in eine Bilderwelt, welche nicht die Außenwelt wiedergab, sondern direkt aus dem Bildgedächtnis und der Einbildungskraft des Gehirns zu erwachsen schien. Das machte den Besuch der Ausstellung zu einem Abenteuer, aber auch zu einer Art Intimität: es war eine Art visueller Beiwohnung der Innenwelt eines anderen Menschen, ebenso aufregend wie gelegentlich auch Scham oder das Gefühl wachrufend, man sei jemandem zu nahe getreten. Beides, Abenteuer wie Intimität, hat mit Grenzen und ihrer Überschreitung zu tun. Tatsächlich sollten die Besucher diesen Eindruck gewinnen: daß sie Grenzen überschritten, die gewöhnlich von Tabus und Verboten, von Scham oder Angst besetzt sind. Das einer Initiation ähnliche Arrangement diente einer solchen Grenzüberschreitung und Passage. ...
Briefnormen
(1994)
Der Kongress der Hochstapelei und Des Hochstaplers Veredelung durch die Herren Wulffen und Mann
(2001)
Egon Erwin Kisch
(2006)
Von der Poetik und Rhetorik des Fremden zur Kulturgeschichte und Kulturtheorie des Übersetzens
(2004)
In trying to study the idea of landscape (fukei) in Japanese waka-poetry, one may find oneself confronted with a great variety of concepts. All of these share commonalities in that they are not at all defined, that their meaning depends on personal usage (at the level of the producer, as well as of the researcher who often speaks the same language), and that they can be understood on a wide spectrum between the two extreme positions marked by fiction and reality (without, of course, any scientific concept about what fiction and reality might be). Although European traditions are coping with the concept of landscape in an aesthetical and philosophical way, there is no such comparable tradition in traditional Japanese literary history (kokubungaku). Because of this, there is no satisfactory way to conceptually understand waka-landscape, since the very basic key-term itself is not mutually accessible. European and Japanese concepts of landscape may not, therefore, be able to be brought together. To have an international scientific discussion on landscape (found in every culture historically and up to the present), it is necessary to develop a concept of landscape which is not only an issue of arts, aesthetics or philosophy, but also the subject of anthropological approaches and cultural studies. In this paper, I attempt to develop a concept of landscape, which is based on constructivism and the psychology of perception and memory. I will also show how constructivist thought has gained great popularity in German social and cultural studies.
Barockrhetorik in Salzburg : zur Rolle der Benediktiner im frühneuzeitlichen Rhetorikunterricht
(2003)
Einleitung Prima Materia
(2004)
Autobiografie und Geschlecht
(2006)
Der Beitrag untersucht die parasoziale Funktion literarischer Werke, die der fiktive Herausgeber von Werthers Briefen voraussetzt, wenn er seinen Lesern das Buch als einen "Freund" anempfiehlt. Textanalysen zeigen, daß Goethes "Werther" sich eines besonderen "emotiven Sprechmusters" bedient, um Individualität zu artikulieren und zu kommunizieren. Im zweiten Teil des Beitrags wird das emotive Sprechmuster als ein spezifisches Interaktionsmuster, wie es als Figurenrede in Goethes Jugendwerk in Erscheinung tritt, untersucht. Dabei ist eine Verschiebung von einer supplikativen zu einer konsolatorischen Verwendung des emotiven Sprechmusters zu beobachten. Der konsolatorische Effekt, in der Selbstaussprache eines anderen sich selbst wiederzufinden und dadurch seine Individualität bestätigt zu sehen, wird im dritten Teil des Beitrags als Erklärung für das Phänomen des "Werther-Fiebers" nutzbar gemacht. Der Beitrag unternimmt eine ausführliche Kritik des Forschungstopos, die enthusiastischen jugendlichen Leser hätten den "Werther" mißverstanden oder an Realitätsverlust gelitten, und stellt eine Verbindung zu Kult-Phänomenen der modernen Pop- und Jugendkultur her.
Literatur als emotionale Attrappe : eine evolutionspsychologische Lösung des "paradox of fiction"
(2006)
Ausgehend von der Beobachtung, dass die emotionale Reaktion auf fiktionale Stimuli einigen alltagspsychologischen Vorannahmen widerspricht, wird ein psychologisches Emotionsmodell entwickelt, das Theorieangebote der Verhaltensforschung und der biologischen Evolutionstheorie aufgreift und erklären kann, warum wir überhaupt Emotionen in Bezug auf Literatur erleben. Emotionale Wirkungen von Literatur werden dabei heuristisch gleichgesetzt mit der Wirkung von Attrappen. Anschließend wird die Primärunterscheidung realer und fiktionaler Stimuli an Hand typisierter Beispiele aufgelöst zugunsten einer emotionsspezifischen Betrachtungsweise, die nach der jeweiligen emotionalen Qualität bestimmter Textstimuli fragt und aus ihr eine entwicklungsgeschichtlich plausible, adaptive Verlaufswahrscheinlichkeit des jeweiligen Emotionsprogramms ableitet.
Das "Wilde" als eine Variante zahlreicher europäischer Fremdheitskonzeptionen, die in ihrer Unbestimmtheit meist nur auf ein defizitäres Anderssein verweisen, hat im Europa des ausgehenden 19. und beginnenden 20. Jahrhunderts Konjunktur. Die Literatur des kolonialen Zeitalters oder auch erste Stummfilme3 bedienen sich selbstverständlich abenteuerlich-exotischer Kulissen des "Wilden", seien es "nichtzivilisierte" Landschaften, Tiere oder Menschen und Kulturen. In zoologischen Gärten wie Hagenbecks Tierpark (1907) werden exotische Tiere in Freigehegen zur Schau gestellt, deren panoramatische Szenarien dem Besucher in nachgebauter authentischer landschaftlicher Umgebung die Illusion einer gefahrlosen Annäherung auf freier Wildbahn verschaffen. Das populäre Interesse besonders an Raubtieren schlägt sich in Deutschland noch zur Stummfilmzeit in der Produktion von Raubtier-Sensationsspielfilmen durch den Bruder des Hamburger Tierhändlers und Zoodirektors Carl Hagenbeck, John, nieder. In diesen Filmen entsteht für den Zuschauer, u.a. mit Hilfe von cut-ins aus den Freigehegen der Tierparks, die analoge Illusion eines gemeinsamen Raumes zwischen Jäger und Beute: "As the open zoo used trenches and moats, cinema also enlistened technology – that is, recording and montage – in order to efface the bars of the cage." Die neuen urbanen Schau-Plätze Zoo und Kino erscheinen im Kontext des epochalen Exotismus als Medien mit zirzensischer Vorgeschichte, die auf einer Abfolge sensationeller Nummern aufbauen und dem Zuschauer die Möglichkeit einer genußvollen Annäherung an das gefährliche oder andersartige Wilde in einem "gemeinsamen" Raum suggerieren. Damit ist eine wesentliche Facette des populären Exotismus der Jahrhundertwende skizziert, der nervenkitzelnde Illusionen von Zugänglichkeit und Authentizität des Andersartigen schafft, indem bestehende Distanzen in hochartifiziellen imaginären Räumen verwischt und negiert werden, während der Betrachter sich in Sicherheit weiß.
Hugo von Hofmannsthal ist eigenen Aussagen zufolge kein Schriftsteller, der seine Inspiration aus der Musik schöpft, wie die Autoren der Romantik oder des französisch-sprachigen Symbolismus: „Ich bin ein Dichter, weil ich bildlich erlebe“, lautet der demonstrativ-lakonische Ausspruch des jungen Literaten von 1894. Trotz seines selbst diagnostizierten Musik-Defizits avanciert Hofmannsthal in der langen Zusammenarbeit mit Richard Strauss zum bedeutendsten Librettisten seiner Zeit, dessen Texten der Komponist eine fundamentale Musikalität attestiert. Neben der visuellen Grundorientierung existieren latente, aber markante Züge einer musikalischen Poetologie. Diese ist, wie anhand der ersten drei lyrischen Dramen Hofmannsthals gezeigt werden soll, eng mit dem Begriff der „Stimmung“ liiert, dessen Ursprung in den musikalischen Kosmogonien des Pythagoreismus und Platonismus mit der Idee einer verborgen tönenden, Mensch und Natur beeinflussenden Harmonie der Sphären liegt. Spätestens seit 1800 wird das klangmetaphysische Konzept der Sphären- und Weltharmonie, das am nachhaltigsten der deutsche Stimmungsbegriff transponiert, massiv von anthropomorphen Fortschreibungen überlagert, die den kosmogonischen Kern zur Metapher oder Konnotation depotenzieren und in disparate einzelwissenschaftliche Definitionen auflösen. Daher können sich um 1900 in einem umgangssprachlich gewordenen Stimmungs-begriff musikalische, literarische, philosophische und psychophysische Diskurse kreuzen, deren Vernetzungen seinen proteischen und synästhetischen Charakter betonen. Zugleich entstehen disziplinenspezifische Prototheorien, die großteils nicht mehr ineinander übersetzbar sind.
In der Schrift Der Verfasser teilt die Geschichte seiner botanischen Studien mit (1817) erinnert Goethe, wie er 1786 in Padua angesichts einer Fächerpalme die Idee zur "Metamorphose der Pflanze" faßte. Er ließ deswegen einen Gärtner die "Stufenfolge dieser Veränderungen" abschneiden und führte diese botanischen Dokumente zwischen großen Pappen mit sich. 1817 weiß er, wie dieses Verhalten zu bezeichnen ist: "Sie liegen wie ich sie damals mitgenommen, noch wohlbehalten vor mir und ich verehre sie als Fetische, die meine Aufmerksamkeit zu erregen und zu fesseln völlig geeignet, mir eine gedeihliche Folge meiner Bemühungen zuzusagen scheinen." (WA II, 6, 119-121) ...
1775. Auf der Schweizer Reise, die den Werther-Goethe bis auf den Gotthardt führt. Vom Gipfel aus sieht er Italien lockend vor sich. Noch aber ist die "Heimat" ihm "das unentbehrlichste Element" (HA X, 150)1, und Goethe wagt nicht den Schritt über die Alpen. Auf dieser Reise mit den "Haimonskindern" (den Brüdern Christian und Friedrich Leopold von Stolberg sowie dem Grafen Kurt von Haugwitz alle vier in Werther-Kleidung) baden die jungen Männer in Schweizer Seen und Flüssen – "halb nackt wie ein poetischer Schäfer, oder ganz nackt wie eine heidnische Gottheit" (ebd. 153). Man kann sich denken, daß die braven Schweizer ob dieser nackten Götter Griechenlands aus Deutschland empört sind. Doch an einsamen Orten mögen sie "beim Anblick und Feuchtgefühl des rinnenden, laufenden, stürzenden, in der Fläche sich sammelnden, nach und nach zum See sich ausbreitenden Gewässers" "der Versuchung nicht zu widerstehen", dennoch "die Kleider abzuwerfen und sich kühnlich den schäumenden Stromwellen entgegen zu setzen" (ebd.). Der alte Goethe kommentiert diese "Frechheit" als "wildes, unbändiges, ja heidnisches Naturell" (ebd., 154). Rebellischen Rousseauismus, "Sturm und Drang"-Attitüde mag man von heute her geistesgeschichtlich diese Episode nennen. Genauer ist es die Entdeckung der Lust des badenden, schwimmenden, mit dem Element Wasser frei und erotisch verbundenen Leibes. Der nackte, erotische Körper und das Wasser, das ihn umrinnt, überstürzt, weich umspielt, erfrischt leicht macht, erquickt und ein "wildes, teils von der Kühlung, teils von dem Behagen aufgeregtes Lustjauchzen" weckt. Das ist gegen die moralische Enge der gesitteten, aufgeklärten, leibfeindlichen Lebensverhältnisse, denen die schäumenden Jünglinge entflohen sind, der Protest des erotischen Körpers im Namen der Antike. Noch genauer als in der moderaten, von sich selbst ablenkenden Erzählung in Dichtung und Wahrheit erkennt man dies in den fiktiven Briefen aus der Schweiz von 1796 ...
Der Roman "Die Wahlverwandtschaften" ist im ersten Ansehen ein Kammerspiel des Sozialen. Dessen Kern bilden die vier Hauptpersonen, umgeben von einer begrenzten Zahl von Nebenfiguren. Um nichts anderes scheint es zu gehen als um die Charaktere und ihre Beziehungen, die Konflikte und Motive, die psychologischen und sozialen Dynamiken. So mag man Ottilie recht geben, wenn sie in ihrem Tagebuch den berühmten Grundsatz von Alexander Pope zitiert: "...das eigentliche Studium der Menschheit ist der Mensch" (417). Ist dieses aus bester Aufklärungstradition stammende Prinzip nicht eine treffendere inscriptio des Romans als die chemische Gleichnisrede von den Wahlverwandtschaften, die niemals wenn nicht fälschlich auf die Konstellationen des Romans angewendet werden kann? ...
Kontroverspredigt der Berge
(1997)
Für unser Körpergefühl stehen nicht viele Richtungen zur Verfügung: vor und hinter, rechts und links von uns, unter und über uns. Es sind dies die horizontalen und vertikalen Orientierungen im Raum, aber auch im Haus der sprachlichen Symbole. Da der Mensch ein Landtier ist und seine Geschichte mit der Besiedlung flacher Gebiete anhob, scheinen ihm die Tiefen und Höhen weniger natürlich als die horizontalen Erstreckungen. Von den letzteren ist diejenige 'hinter uns' immer ein wenig unheimlich: was sich hinter unserem Rücken abspielt, außerhalb unseres Sehfeldes, weckt die Angst vor unbestimmten Gefahren. Das Ohr muß dann ersetzen, was dem Auge entgeht. Die Sprache bewahrt alte Gefahren im Gedächtnis: jemanden zu hintergehen, in einen Hinterhalt zu locken, gar hinterrücks zu überfallen, oder wie Hagen den Siegfried meuchlings von hinten an seiner einzig verwundbaren Stelle zu treffen - dies sind Spuren dessen, was als hintertriebene Heimtücke gilt, während es dem Feldherrn als strategische Schläue angerechnet wird, wenn er die feindlichen Reihen umgangen hat und diese vom Rücken her angreift. Von Cannae über den Schlieffen-Plan bis zu den Kesselschlachten des II. Weltkriegs reicht der martiale Mythos der listigen Überwindung des von hinten überraschten Gegners. Wer souverän bleiben will, hält sich den Rücken frei. Hinten, noch immer, ist unsere Siegfrieds-Stelle, das Alpha Privativum, das in seiner Geheimnishaftigkeit ebenso sehr das Privatissime unseres Selbst wie dessen tiefste Verletzlichkeit verbirgt. Man geht nicht fehl, den Schrecken und die Plötzlichkeit mit dem hinterrücks überfallenden Bann der Glieder und ihrer Motilität zu verbinden. Der Partisan muß dies nutzen als seinen einzigen Vorteil dem überlegenen Feind gegenüber. ...
When we pay close attention to the prosody of Wh-questions in Japanese, we discover many novel and interesting empirical puzzles that would require us to devise a much finer syntactic component of grammar. This paper addresses the issues that pose some problems to such an elaborated grammar, and offers solutions, making an appeal to the information structure and sentence processing involved in the interpretation of interrogative and focus constructions.
Fronting of an infinite VP across a finite main verb - akin to German "VP-topicalization" - can be found also in Czech and Polish. The paper discusses evidence from large corpora for this process and some of its properties, both syntactic and information-structural. Based on this case, criteria for more user-friedly searching and retrieval of corpus data in syntactic research are being developed.
This paper describes the creation and preparation of TUSNELDA, a collection of corpus data built for linguistic research. This collection contains a number of linguistically annotated corpora which differ in various aspects such as language, text sorts / data types, encoded annotation levels, and linguistic theories underlying the annotation. The paper focuses on this variation on the one hand and the way how these heterogeneous data are integrated into one resource on the other hand.
The paper explicates the notions of topic, contrastive topic, and focus as used in the analysis of Hungarian. Based on distributional criteria, topic and focus are claimed to represent distinct structural positions in the left periphery of the Hungarian sentence, associated with logical rather than discourse functions. The topic is interpreted as the logical subject of predication. The focus is analyzed as a derived main predicate, specifying the referential content of the set denoted by the backgrounded post-focus section of the sentence. The exhaustivity associated with the focus and the existential presupposition associated with the background are shown to be properties following from their specificational predication relation.
The recognition of the prosodic focus position in German-learning infants from 4 to 14 months
(2007)
The aim of the present study was to elucidate in a study with 4-, 6-, 8-, and 14-month-old German-learning children, when and how they may acquire the regularities which underlie Focus-to-Stress Alignment (FSA) in the target language, that is, how prosody is associated with specific communicative functions. Our findings suggest, that 14-month-olds have already found out that German allows for variable focus positions, after having gone through a development which goes from a predominantly prosodically driven processing of the input to a processing where prosody interacts more and more with the growing lexical and syntactic knowledge of the child.
The paper investigates focus marking devices in the scarcely documented North-Ghanaian Gur language Konkomba. The two particles lé and lá occur under specific focus conditions and are therefore regarded as focus markers in the sparse literature. Comparing the distribution and obligatoriness of both alleged focus markers however, I show that one of the particles, lé, is better analyzed as a connective particle, i.e. as a syntactic rather than as a genuine pragmatic marker, and that comparable syntactic focus marking strategies for sentence-initial constituents are also known from related languages.
This paper deals with the conditions under which singular definites, on the one hand, and universally quantified DPs, on the other hand, receive interpretations according to which the sets denoted by the NP-complements of the respective determiner vary with the situations quantified over by a Q-adverb. I show that in both cases such interpretations depend on the availability of situation predicates that are compatible with the presuppositions associated with the respective determiner, as co-variation in both cases comes about via the binding of a covert situation variable that is contained within the NP-complement of the respective determiner. Secondly, I offer an account for the observation that the availability of a co-varying interpretation is more constrained in the case of universally quantified DPs than in the case of singular definites, as far as word order is concerned. This is shown to follow from the fact that co-varying definites in contrast to universally quantified DPs are inherently focus-marked.
Face-to-face communication is multimodal. In unscripted spoken discourse we can observe the interaction of several “semiotic layers”, modalities of information such as syntax, discourse structure, gesture, and intonation. We explore the role of gesture and intonation in structuring and aligning information in spoken discourse through a study of the co-occurrence of pitch accents and gestural apices. Metaphorical spatialization through gesture also plays a role in conveying the contextual relationships between the speaker, the government and other external forces in a naturally-occurring political speech setting.
Elke Kasimir´s paper (in this volume) argues against employing the notion of Givenness in the explanation of accent assignment. I will claim that the arguments against Givenness put forward by Kasimir are inconclusive because they beg the question of the role of Givenness. It is concluded that, more generally, arguments against Givenness as a diagnostic for information structural partitions should not be accepted offhand, since the notion of Givenness of discourse referents is (a) theoretically simple, (b) readily observable and quantifiable, and (c) bears cognitive significance.
A series of production and perception experiments investigating the prosody and well-formedness of special sentences, called Wide Focus Partial Fronting (WFPF), which consist of only one prosodic phrase and a unique initial accented argument, are reported on here. The results help us to decide between different models of German prosody. The absence of pitch height difference on the accent of the sentence speaks in favor of a relative model of prosody, in which accents are scaled relative to each other, and against models in which pitch accents are scaled in an absolute way. The results also speak for a model in which syntax, but not information structure, influences the prosodic phrasing. Finally, perception experiments show that the prosodic structure of sentences with a marked word order needs to be presented for grammaticality judgments. Presentation of written material only is not enough, and falsifies the results.
The semantics of ellipsis
(2005)
There are four phenomena that are particularly troublesome for theories of ellipsis: the existence of sloppy readings when the relevant pronouns cannot possibly be bound; an ellipsis being resolved in such a way that an ellipsis site in the antecedent is not understood in the way it was there; an ellipsis site drawing material from two or more separate antecedents; and ellipsis with no linguistic antecedent. These cases are accounted for by means of a new theory that involves copying syntactically incomplete antecedent material and an analysis of silent VPs and NPs that makes them into higher order definite descriptions that can be bound into.
This paper discusses the use of XSLT stylesheets as a filtering mechanism for refining the results of user queries on treebanks. The discussion is within the context of the TIGER treebank, the associated search engine and query language, but the general ideas can apply to any search engine for XML-encoded treebanks. It will be shown that important classes of linguistic phenomena can be accessed by applying relatively simple XSLT templates to the output of a query, effectively simulating the universal quantifier for a subset of the query language.
In order to investigate the empirical properties of focus, it is necessary to diagnose focus (or: “what is focused”) in particular linguistic examples. It is often taken for granted that the application of one single diagnostic tool, the so-called question-answer test, which roughly says that whatever a question asks for is focused in the answer, is a fool-proof test for focus. This paper investigates one example class where such uncritical belief in the question-answer test has led to the assumption of rather complex focus projection rules: in these examples, pitch accent placement has been claimed to depend on certain parts of the focused constituents being given or not. It is demonstrated that such focus projection rules are unnecessarily complex and in turn require the assumption of unnecessarily complicated meaning rules, not to speak of the difficulties to give a precise semantic/pragmatic definition of the allegedly involved givenness property. For the sake of the argument, an alternative analysis is put forward which relies solely on alternative sets following Mats Rooth´s work, and avoids any recourse to givenness. As it turns out, this alternative analysis is not only simpler but also makes in a critical case the better predictions.
In this paper we compare the behaviour of adverbs of frequency (de Swart 1993) like usually with the behaviour of adverbs of quantity like for the most part in sentences that contain plural definites. We show that sentences containing the former type of Q-adverb evidence that Quantificational Variability Effects (Berman 1991) come about as an indirect effect of quantification over situations: in order for quantificational variability readings to arise, these sentences have to obey two newly observed constraints that clearly set them apart from sentences containing corresponding quantificational DPs, and that can plausibly be explained under the assumption that quantification over (the atomic parts of) complex situations is involved. Concerning sentences with the latter type of Q-adverb, on the other hand, such evidence is lacking: with respect to the constraints just mentioned, they behave like sentences that contain corresponding quantificational DPs. We take this as evidence that Q-adverbs like for the most part do not quantify over the atomic parts of sum eventualities in the cases under discussion (as claimed by Nakanishi and Romero (2004)), but rather over the atomic parts of the respective sum individuals.
Japanese wh-questions always exhibit focus intonation (FI). Furthermore, the domain of FI exhibits a correspondence to the wh-scope. I propose that this phonology-semantics correspondence is a result of the cyclic computation of FI, which is explained under the notion of Multiple Spell-Out in the recent Minimalist framework. The proposed analysis makes two predictions: (1) embedding of an FI into another is possible; (2) (overt) movement of a wh-phrase to a phase edge position causes a mismatch between FI and wh-scope. Both predictions are tested experimentally, and shown to be borne out.
Prosodic focus in Vietnamese
(2007)
This paper reports on pilot work on the expression of Information Structure in Vietnamese and argues that Focus in Vietnamese is exclusively expressed prosodically: there are no specific focus markers, and the language uses phonology to express intonational emphasis in similar ways to languages like English or German. The exploratory data indicates that (i) focus is prosodically expressed while word order remains constant, (ii) listeners show good recoverability of the intended focus structure, and (iii) that there is a trading relationship between several phonetic parameters (duration, f0, amplitude) involved to signal prosodic (acoustic) emphasis.
Phonology and intonation
(2007)
The encoding standards for phonology and intonation are designed to facilitate consistent annotation of the phonological and intonational aspects of information structure, in languages across a range ofprosodic types. The guidelines are designed with the aim that a nonspecialist in phonology can both implement and interpret the resulting annotation.
This paper investigates the structural properties of morphosyntactically marked focus constructions, focussing on the often neglected non-focal sentence part in African tone languages. Based on new empirical evidence from five Gur and Kwa languages, we claim that these focus expressions have to be analysed as biclausal constructions even though they do not represent clefts containing restrictive relative clauses. First, we relativize the partly overgeneralized assumptions about structural correspondences between the out-of-focus part and relative clauses, and second, we show that our data do in fact support the hypothesis of a clause coordinating pattern as present in clause sequences in narration. It is argued that we deal with a non-accidental, systematic feature and that grammaticalization may conceal such basic narrative structures.
This article presents an analysis of German nicht...sondern... (contrastive not...but...) which departs from the commonly held view that this construction should be explained by appeal to its alleged corrective function. It will be demonstrated that in nicht A sondern B (not A but B), A and B just behave like stand-alone unmarked answers to a common question Q, and that this property of sondern is presuppositional in character. It is shown that from this general observation many interesting properties of nicht...sondern... follow, among them distributional differences between German "sondern" and German "aber" (contrastive but, concessive but), intonational requirements and exhaustivity effect sondern presupposition is furthermore argued to be the result of the conventionalization of conversational implicatures.
Three dimensions can be distinguished in a cross-linguistic account of information structure. First, there is the definition of the focus constituent, the part of the linguistic expression which is subject to some focus meaning. Second and third, there are the focus meanings and the array of structural devices that encode them. In a given language, the expression of focus is facilitated as well as constrained by the grammar within which the focus devices operate. The prevalence of focus ambiguity, the structural inability to make focus distinctions, will thus vary across languages, and within a language, across focus meanings.
In this paper, we present the Multiple Annotation approach, which solves two problems: the problem of annotating overlapping structures, and the problem that occurs when documents should be annotated according to different, possibly heterogeneous tag sets. This approach has many advantages: it is based on XML, the modeling of alternative annotations is possible, each level can be viewed separately, and new levels can be added at any time. The files can be regarded as an interrelated unit, with the text serving as the implicit link. Two representations of the information contained in the multiple files (one in Prolog and one in XML) are described. These representations serve as a base for several applications.
The paper presents an in-depth study of focus marking in Gùrùntùm, a West Ch adic language spoken in Bauchi Province of Northern Nigeria. Focus in Gùrùntùm is marked morphologically by means of a focus marker a, which typically precedes the focus constituent. Even though the morphological focus-marking system of Gùrùntùm allows for a lot of fine-grained distinctions in information structure (IS) in principle, the language is not entirely free of focus ambiguities that arise as the result of conflicting IS- and syntactic requirements that govern the placement of focus markers. We show that morphological focus marking with a applies across different types of focus, such as newinformation, contrastive, selective and corrective focus, and that a does not have a second function as a perfectivity marker, as is assumed in the literature. In contrast, we show at the end of the paper that a can also function as a foregrounding device at the level of discourse structure.
This paper presents the results of a production experiment on the intonation of sentences containing a negative polarity item (NPI) in Tokyo Japanese. The results show that NPI sentences exhibit a focus intonation: the F0-peak of the word to which an NPI is attached is raised, while the pitch contour after the NPI-attached word is compressed until the negation. This intonation pattern is parallel to that of wh-question, in which the F0 of the wh-phrase is raised while the post-wh-contour is compressed until the question particle.
This paper surveys a range of constructions in which prosody affects discourse function and discourse structure.We discuss English tag questions, negative polar questions, and what we call “focus” questions. We postulate that these question types are complex speech acts and outline an analysis in Segmented Discourse Representation Theory (SDRT) to account for the interactions between prosody and discourse.
The aim of this paper is to validate a dataset collected by means of production experiments which are part of the Questionnaire on Information Structure. The experiments generate a range of information structure contexts that have been observed in the literature to induce specific constructions. This paper compares the speech production results from a subset of these experiments with specific claims about the reflexes of information structure in four different languages. The results allow us to evaluate and in most cases validate the efficacy of our elicitation paradigms, to identify potentially fruitful avenues of future research, and to highlight issues involved in interpreting speech production data of this kind.
While the Information Structure (IS) is most naturally interpreted as "structure of information", some may argue that it is structure of something else, and others may object to the use of the word "structure". This paper focuses on the question of whether the informational component can have structural properties such that it can be called "structure". The preliminary conclusion is that, althoughthere are some vague indications of structurehood in it, it is perhaps better understood to be a representation that encodes a finite set of information-based partitions, rather than structure.
In a first step, definitions of the irreducible information structural categories are given, and in a second step, it is shown that there are no invariant phonological or otherwise grammatical correlates of these categories. In other words, the phonology, syntax or morphology are unable to define information structure. It is a common mistake that information structural categories are expressed by invariant grammatical correlates, be they syntactic, morphological or phonological. It is rather the case that grammatical cues help speaker and hearer to sort out which element carries which information structural role, and only in this sense are the grammatical correlates of information structure important. Languages display variation as to the role of grammar in enhancing categories of information structure, and this variation reflects the variation found in the ‘normal’ syntax and phonology of languages.
We argue that there is a crucial difference between determiner and adverbial quantification. Following Herburger [2000] and von Fintel [1994], we assume that determiner quantifiers quantify over individuals and adverbial quantifiers over eventualities. While it is usually assumed that the semantics of sentences with determiner quantifiers and those with adverbial quantifiers basically come out the same, we will show by way of new data that quantification over events is more restricted than quantification over individuals. This is because eventualities in contrast to individuals have to be located in time which is done using contextual information according to a pragmatic resolution strategy. If the contextual information and the tense information given in the respective sentence contradict each other, the sentence is uninterpretable. We conclude that this is the reason why in these cases adverbial quantification, i.e. quantification over eventualities, is impossible whereas quantification over individuals is fine.
Heterogeneity and standardization in data, use, and annotation : a diachronic corpus of German
(2005)
This paper describes the standardization problems that come up in a diachronic corpus: it has to cope with differing standards with regard to diplomaticity, annotation, and header information. Such highly heterogeneous texts must be standardized to allow for comparative research without (too much) loss of information.
Results of a production experiment on the placement of sentence accent in German are reported. The hypothesis that German fulfills some of the most widely accepted rules of accent assignment— predicting focus domain integration—was only partly confirmed. Adjacency between argument and verb induces a single accent on the argument, as recognized in the literature, but interruption of this sequence by a modifier often induces remodeling of the accent pattern with a single accent on the modifier. The verb is rarely stressed. All models based on linear alignment or adjacency between elements belonging to a single accent domain fail to account for this result. A cyclic analysis of prosodic domain formation is proposed in an optimality-theoretic framework that can explain the accent pattern.
Human manual action exhibits a differential use of a non-dominant (typically, left) and a dominant (typically, right) hand. Human communication exhibits a pervasive structuring of utterances into topic and comment. I will point out striking similarities between the coordination of hands in bimanual actions, and the structuring of utterances in topics and comments. I will also show how principles of bimanual coordination influence the expression of topic/comment structure in sign languages and in gestures accompanying spoken language, and suggest that bimanual coordination might have been a preadaptation of the development of information structure in human communication.
We argue that the standard focus theories reach their limits when confronted with the focus systems of the Chadic languages. The backbone of the standard focus theories consists of two assumptions, both called into question by the languages under consideration. Firstly, it is standardly assumed that focus is generally marked by stress. The Chadic languages, however, exhibit a variety of different devices for focus marking. Secondly, it is assumed that focus is always marked. In Tangale, at least, focus is not marked consistently on all types of constituents. The paper offers two possible solutions to this dilemma.
Focus expressions in Foodo
(2007)
This paper aims at presenting different ways of expressing focus in Foodo, a Guang language. We can differentiate between marked and unmarked focus strategies. The marked focus expressions are first syntactically characterized: the focused constituent is in sentence-initial position and is second always marked obligatorily by a focus marker, which is [...] for non-subjects and N for subjects. Complementary to these structures, Foodo knows an elliptic form consisting of the focused constituent and a predication marker [...]. It will be shown that the two focus markers can be analyzed as having developed out of the homophone conjunction n[...] and that the constraints on the use of the focus markers can be best explained by this fact.
Focus asymmetries in Bura
(2008)
This article presents the central aspects of the focus system of Bura (Chadic), which exhibits a number of asymmetries: Grammatical focus marking is obligatory only with focused subjects, where focus is marked by the particle án following the subject. Focused subjects remain in situ and the complement of án is a regular VP. With nonsubject foci, án appears in a cleft-structure between the fronted focus constituent and a relative clause. We present a semantically unified analysis of focus marking in Bura that treats the particle as a focusmarking copula in T that takes a property-denoting expression (the background) and an individual-denoting expression (the focus) as arguments. The article also investigates the realization of predicate and polarity focus, which are almost never marked. The upshot of the discussion is that Bura shares many characteristic traits of focus marking with other Chadic languages, but it crucially differs in exhibiting a structural difference in the marking of focus on subjects and non-subject constituents.
Focus and tone
(2006)
Tone is a distinctive feature of the lexemes in tone languages. The information-structural category focus is usually marked by syntactic and morphological means in these languages, but sometimes also by intonation strategies. In intonation languages, focus is marked by pitch movements, which are also perceived as tone. The present article discusses prosodic focus marking in these two language types.
This paper discusses how focus change s prosodic structure in Tokyo Japanese. It is generally believed that focus blocks the intonational process of downstep and causes a pitch reset. This paper presents experimental evidence against this traditional view by looking at the prosodic behavior of Wh words, which receive focus lexically in Japanese as in other languages. It is demonstrated, specifically, that the focused Wh element does not block downstep although it receives a much higher pitch than its preceding element. This suggests that presence of lexical focus does not trigger pitch reset in Japanese.
The present study examines native and nonnative perceptual processing of semantic information conveyed by prosodic prominence. Five groups of German learners of English each listened to one of 5 experimental conditions. Three conditions differed in place of focus accent in the sentence and two conditions were with spliced stimuli. The experiment condition was presented first in the learners’ L1 (German) and then in a similar set in the L2 (English). The effect of the accent condition and of the length and position of the target in the sentence was evaluated in a probe recognition task. In both the L1 and L2 tasks there was no significant effect in any of the five focus conditions. Target position and target word length had an effect in the L1 task. Word length did not affect accuracy rates in the L2 task. For probe recognition in the L2, word length and the position of the target interacted with the focus condition.
We present a system for the linguistic exploration and analysis of lexical cohesion in English texts. Using an electronic thesaurus-like resource, Princeton WordNet, and the Brown Corpus of English, we have implemented a process of annotating text with lexical chains and a graphical user interface for inspection of the annotated text. We describe the system and report on some sample linguistic analyses carried out using the combined thesaurus-corpus resource.
In diesem Aufsatz geht es um die Datenbank ‚Mehrsprachigkeit’ und das System EXMARaLDA, die am SFB 538 ‚Mehrsprachigkeit’ der Universität Hamburg entwickelt werden. Da deren konzeptuelle und technische Details bereits an anderer Stelle ausführlich dargestellt worden sind (z.B. Schmidt 2004), soll der Schwerpunkt hier einerseits auf solchen Aspekten liegen, die – gemäß dem Thema des Workshops – mit allgemeineren Fragen zum Umgang mit computerverwertbaren, heterogenen linguistischen Datenbeständen zu tun haben. Andererseits soll versucht werden, aus den praktischen Erfahrungen der nunmehr vierjährigen Projektarbeit einige Erkenntnisse abzuleiten, die über den konkreten Projektzusammenhang hinaus für die weitere Arbeit auf diesem Gebiet interessant sein könnten.
The aim of this paper is to outline the means for encoding information structure in Yucatec Maya. Yucatec Maya is a tone language, displaying a three-fold opposition in the tonal realization of syllables. From the morpho-syntactic point of view, the grammar of Yucatec Maya contains morphological (topic affixes, morphological marking of out-of-focus predicates) and syntactic (designated positions) means to uniquely specify syntactic constructions for their information structure. After a descriptive overview of these phenomena, we present experimental evidence which reveals the impact of the nonavailability of prosodic alternatives on the choice of syntactic constructions in language production.
Diskurspragmatische Faktoren für Topikalität und Verbstellung in der ahd. Tatianübersetzung (9. Jh.)
(2005)
The paper presents work in progress on the interaction between information structure and word order in Old High German based on data from the Tatian translation (9th century). The examination of the position of the finite verb in correspondence with the pragmatic status of discourse referents reveals an overall tendency for verb-initial order in thetic/all-focus sentences, whereas in categorical / topic-comment sentences verb-second placement with an initial topic constituent is preferred. This conclusion provides support for the hypothesis stated in Donhauser & Hinterhölzl (2003) that the finite verb form in Early Germanic serves to distinguish the information-structural domains of Topic and Focus. Finally, the investigation sheds light on the process of language change that led to the overall spread of verb-second in main clauses of modern German.
In this paper we review the current state of research on the issue of discourse structure (DS) / information structure (IS) interface. This field has received a lot of attention from discourse semanticists and pragmatists, and has made substantial progress in recent years. In this paper we summarize the relevant studies. In addition, we look at the issue of DS/ISinteraction at a different level—that of phonetics. It is known that both information structure and discourse structure can be realized prosodically, but the issue of phonetic interaction between the prosodic devices they employ has hardly ever been discussed in this context. We think that a proper consideration of this aspect of DS/IS-interaction would enrich our understanding of the phenomenon, and hence we formulate some related research-programmatic positions.
This paper investigates the nature of the attraction of XPs to clauseinitial position in German (and other languages). It argues that there are two different types of preposing. First, an XP can move when it is attracted by an EPP-like feature of Comp. Comp can, however, also attract elements that bear the formal marker of some semantic or pragmatic (information theoretic) function. This second type of movement is driven by the attraction of a formal property of the moved element. It has often been misanalysed as “operator” movement in the past.
New evidence is provided for a grammatical principle that singles out contrastive focus (Rooth 1996; Truckenbrodt 1995) and distinguishes it from discourse-new “informational” focus. Since the prosody of discourse-given constituents may also be distinguished from discourse-new, a three-way distinction in representation is motivated. It is assumed that an F-feature marks just contrastive focus (Jackendoff 1972, Rooth 1992), and that a G-feature marks discoursegiven constituents (Féry and Samek-Lodovici 2006), while discoursenew is unmarked. A crucial argument for G-marking comes from second occurrence focus (SOF) prosody, which arguably derives from a syntactic representation where SOF is both F-marked and G-marked. This analysis relies on a new G-Marking Condition specifying that a contrastive focus may be G-marked only if the focus semantic value of its scope is discourse-given, i.e. only if the contrast itself is given.
This article takes stock of the basic notions of Information Structure (IS). It first provides a general characterization of IS — following Chafe (1976) — within a communicative model of Common Ground (CG), which distinguishes between CG content and CG management. IS is concerned with those features of language that concern the local CG. Second, this paper defines and discusses the notions of Focus (as indicating alternatives) and its various uses, Givenness (as indicating that a denotation is already present in the CG), and Topic (as specifying what a statement is about). It also proposes a new notion, Delimitation, which comprises contrastive topics and frame setters, and indicates that the current conversational move does not entirely satisfy the local communicative needs. It also points out that rhetorical structuring partly belongs to IS.
The material reported on in this paper is part of a set of experiments in which the role of Information Structure on L2 processing of words is tested. Pitch and duration of 4 sets of experimental material in German and English are measured and analyzed in this paper. The well-known finding that accent boosts duration and pitch is confirmed. Syntactic and lexical means of marking focus, however, do not give the duration and the pitch of a word an extra boost.
In this paper, we discuss the design and implementation of our first version of the database "ANNIS" (ANNotation of Information Structure). For research based on empirical data, ANNIS provides a uniform environment for storing this data together with its linguistic annotations. A central database promotes standardized annotation, which facilitates interpretation and comparison of the data. ANNIS is used through a standard web browser and offers tier-based visualization of data and annotations, as well as search facilities that allow for cross-level and cross-sentential queries. The paper motivates the design of the system, characterizes its user interface, and provides an initial technical evaluation of ANNIS with respect to data size and query processing.
The paper presents a novel approach to explaining word order variation in the early Germanic languages. Initial observations about verb placement as a device marking types of rhetorical relations made on data from Old High German (cf. Hinterhölzl & Petrova 2005) are now reconsidered on a larger scale and compared with evidence from other early Germanic languages. The paper claims that the identification of information-structural domains in a sentence is best achieved by taking into account the interaction between the pragmatic features of discourse referents and properties of discourse organization.
Die Erstellung eines Großwörterbuchs ist ein umfagreiches Vorhaben – nicht nur in quantitativem Sinne. So ist es mir eine Ehre, dass ich – als Mitherausgeber der kürzlich erschienenen Großwörterbücher Deutsch-Ungarisch und Ungarisch-Deutsch – im Rahmen dieser Tagung die derzeit laufende lexikographische Arbeit an einem deutsch-finnischen Großwörterbuch unter der Leitung von Professor Jarmo Korhonen näher kennen lernen kann. Über dieses Projekt schreibt Lenk (1998: 87) in einem Tagungsbericht: „Das [...] geplante neue Großwörterbuch begnügt sich mit einer voraussichtlichen Stichwortzahl von 100.000.“ Nun erhebt sich die Frage, was hier wohl mit der Formulierung „begnügt sich“ gemeint war: Wie „groß“ muss eigentlich ein „Großwörterbuch“ sein, um diesen Namen führen zu dürfen? Unter diesem Aspekt möchte sich der vorliegende Beitrag mit der Problematik der Größenklassen bzw. -bezeichnungen von Wörterbüchern auseinander setzen, da diese Fragestellung in mehrfacher Hinsicht aktuell ist, sowohl für die metalexikographische Theorie als auch für die Praxis der Wörterbucharbeit. Zur Verdeutlichung sei zunächst exemplarisch auf die ungarische Wörterbuchwirklichkeit hingewiesen: Es sind vor kurzem fast zeitgleich – allerdings für unterschiedliche Sprachenpaare – so genannte „Großwörterbücher“ einerseits mit lediglich 30.000 (z.B. Radácsy 1997) und andererseits mit mehr als 200.000 Lemmata (z.B. Halász/Földes/Uzonyi 1998a) herausgegeben worden. Ebenfalls in Ungarn erscheinen jetzt – sogar für dieselbe Sprachrichtung – zwei Wörterbücher mit im Wesentlichen gleicher Lemmaanzahl, wobei sich das eine „Kleinwörterbuch“ (Halász/Földes/Uzonyi 2000a), das andere aber schon „Handwörterbuch“ (Hessky 2000) nennt. Mit anderen Worten: Sprachlexika mit etwas über 30.000 Lemmata nennt man mal Klein-, mal Hand-, mal Großwörterbuch. Von dieser empirischen Beobachtung ausgehend soll im Weiteren an einer größeren Zahl zweisprachiger Wörterbücher, in denen eine der beteiligten Sprachen das Deutsche ist, untersucht werden, ob die Bezeichnungen als einigermaßen verlässliche Indikatoren für die Größe des lexikographisch erfassten Sprachmaterials angesehen werden können. Ebenfalls soll der Frage nachgegangen werden, ob die immer zahlreicher werdenden Attribuierungen und Bestimmungswörter wie großes Wörterbuch oder Global-, Universal-, Kompaktwörterbücher etc. mit dem tatsächlichen Umfang der Wörterbücher korrelieren und ob bzw. inwieweit die diesbezüglich verwendeten Terminologien der einzelnen lexikographischen Werkstätten bzw. der Verlage miteinander kompatibel sind. Hier besteht erheblicher Klärungsbedarf. Vor diesem Hintergrund sollen generell die Probleme der Größenbezeichnungen bzw. -klassen – oder wie der Heidelberger Metalexikograph Wiegand (1990: 2127) besonders fachkundig formuliert: „die Zahlen zur Mächtigkeit der Trägermenge der Makrostruktur“ – angesprochen werden. Dabei muss man sich natürlich klar vor Augen halten, dass die Lemmaanzahl nur eines der Kriterien zur Bestimmung des Volumens, d.h. der Größenklasse ist (vgl. Wiegand 1990: 2129). Bei der Lemmaselektion ergeben sich daher für die Lexikographen gleich zwei grundsätzliche Dilemmas: (a) in quantitativer Hinsicht wie viel und (b) in qualitativer Hinsicht welche Lemmata Aufnahme finden sollen. Denn nur bei einem geschlossenen Korpus – wie etwa bei einem historischen Wörterbuch – liegt eine idealtypische Lemmaselektion vor, indem die Quellen vollständig ausgewertet werden können: Beispielsweise war es Hannig (1995: VII) möglich, in seinem „Handwörterbuch Ägyptisch- Deutsch. Die Sprache der Pharaonen (2800-950 v.Chr.)“ relativ ruhigen Gewissens zu äußern: „Das Handwörterbuch ist eine möglichst vollständige Sammlung aller bekannten Wörter der zweiten/dritten bis inklusive einundzwanzigsten Dynastie“. Die Probleme der Größenklassen scheinen in den einschlägigen Fachdiskursen kaum eine Rolle zu spielen. In einer Monographie erwähnt zwar Schaeder (1987: 84) im Zusammenhang mit einsprachigen Spezialwörterbüchern am Rande: „Geteilt dürften die Ansichten darüber sein, was ein großes und was ein kleines Wörterbuch ist“. Gleichwohl finden sich in den sonst erschöpfenden HSK-Bänden „Wörterbücher“ von Hausmann/Reichmann/Wiegand/Zgusta (1990/1991) recht sporadisch und zugleich ziemlich rudimentäre Hinweise auf eine Phänomenologie der Größenordnung von Wörterbüchern.
Der Beitrag geht davon aus, dass Phraseologismen zum einen als prototypische Verkörperung des ,,kulturellen Gedächtnisses" einer Diskursgemeinschaft, zum anderen als ein universelles, jeder Sprachkultur immanentes Kulturphänomen angesehen werden können. In diesem Zusammenhang setzt er sieh zum Ziel, das Spannungsfeld der Verflochtenheit von ,Kultur" und "Sprache" mit ihren Ausprägungen und Konsequenzen am Material der Phraseologie im Hinblick auf das Deutsche und das Ungarische analytisch herauszuarbeiten und mehrperspektivisch zu hinterfragen. Denn die - im Titel der Tagung hervorgehobene - Kulturgeschichte und die Phraseologie stellen eine äußerst facettenreiche Thematik dar, die eine Reihe kulturphilosophischer, kultursemiotischer, interkultureller, kognitiv-linguistischer u. a. Fragen aufwirft und sowohl einen synchronen als auch einen diachronen Betrachtungsrahmen effordert. Der vorliegende Aufsatz kann sich jedoch auf lediglich einige aktuelle theoretische, methodologische und empirische Aspekte konzentrieren und möchte in disziplinärer Hinsicht kontrastiv und kontaktlinguistisch - dabei methodologisch phänomen- bzw. belegorientiert und problernbezogen - vorgehen.