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BACKGROUND: Systemic thrombolysis with recombinant tissue plasminogen activator (rt-PA) is the standard of acute stroke care. Its potential to increase the risk of secondary intracerebral hemorrhage, especially if administered late, has been ascribed to its proteolytic activity that has detrimental effects on blood-brain barrier (BBB) integrity after stroke. FTY720 has been shown to protect endothelial barriers in several disease models such as endotoxin-induced pulmonary edema and therefore is a promising candidate to counteract the deleterious effects of rt-PA. Besides that, every putative neuroprotectant that will be eventually forwarded into clinical trials should be tested in conjunction with rt-PA.
METHODS: We subjected C57Bl/6 mice to 3 h filament-induced tMCAO and postoperatively randomized them into four groups (n = 18/group) who received the following treatments directly prior to reperfusion: 1) vehicle-treatment, 2) FTY720 1 mg/kg i.p., 3) rt-PA 10 mg/kg i.v. or 4) FTY720 and rt-PA as a combination therapy. We measured functional neurological outcome, BBB disruption by quantification of EB extravasation and MMP-9 activity by gelatin zymography.
RESULTS: We observed a noticeable increase in mortality in the rt-PA/FTY720 cotreatment group (61%) as compared to the vehicle (33%), the FTY720 (39%) and the rt-PA group (44%). Overall, functional neurological outcome did not differ significantly between groups and FTY720 had no effect on rt-PA- and stroke-induced BBB disruption and MMP-9 activation.
CONCLUSIONS: Our data show that FTY720 does not improve functional outcome and BBB integrity in large hemispheric infarctions, neither alone nor in conjunction with rt-PA. These findings stand in contrast to a recently published study that showed beneficial effects of FTY720 in combination with thrombolysis in a thrombotic model of MCAO leading to circumscript cortical infarctions. They might therefore represent a caveat that the coadministration of these two drugs might lead to excess mortality in the setting of a severe stroke.
Background: Sphingolipids are versatile signaling molecules derived from membrane lipids of eukaryotic cells. Ceramides regulate cellular processes such as proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis and are involved in cellular stress responses. Experimental evidence suggests a pivotal role of sphingolipids in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases, including ischemic stroke. A neuroprotective effect has been shown for beta-adrenergic antagonists in rodent stroke models and supported by observational clinical data. However, the exact underlying pathophysiological mechanisms are still under investigation. We aimed to examine the influence of propranolol on the ceramide metabolism in the stroke-affected brain.
Methods: Mice were subjected to 60 or 180 min transient middle cerebral artery occlusion (tMCAO) and infarct size, functional neurological deficits, glucose tolerance, and brain ceramide levels were assessed after 12, 24, and 72 h to evaluate whether the latter two processes occur in a similar time frame. Next, we assessed the effects of propranolol (10 mg/kg bw) at 0, 4 and 8 h after tMCAO and FTY720 (fingolimod; 1 mg/kg) on infarct size, functional outcome, immune cell counts and brain ceramide levels at 24 h after 60 min tMCAO.
Results: We found a temporal coincidence between stroke-associated impaired glucose tolerance and brain ceramide accumulation. Whereas propranolol reduced ischemic lesion size, improved functional outcome and reduced brain ceramide accumulation without an effect on circulating immune cells, FTY720 showed the known neuroprotective effect and strong reduction of circulating immune cells without affecting brain ceramide accumulation.
Conclusions: Propranolol ameliorates both stroke-associated impairment of glucose tolerance and brain ceramide accumulation which are temporally linked, strengthening the evidence for a role of the sympathetic nervous system in regulating post-stroke glucose metabolism and its metabolic consequences in the brain.
Im Hinterhorn des Rückenmarks werden aus der Peripherie kommende nozizeptive Reize auf zentrale Neurone umgeschaltet. Sphingosin-1-Phosphat ist ein potentieller Modulator dieser spinalen nozizeptiven Transmission. Vorarbeiten zeigten, dass die intrathekale Applikation von S1P zu einer Verringerung des nozizeptiven Verhaltens führt. Aus diesem Grund sind sowohl Enzymsysteme, welche die spinale S1P-Konzentration regulieren, als auch spezifische S1P-Rezeptoren und deren Aktivatoren und Inhibitoren potentielle ‚Targets’ und ‚Tools’ für eine suffiziente Schmerztherapie. Zur Charakterisierung der dem antinozizeptiven Effekt von S1P zugrunde liegenden Mechanismen konnte im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gezeigt werden, dass die S1P-Rezeptoren S1P1 und S1P2 in den für die Schmerzverarbeitung wichtigen äußeren Laminae I-III des dorsalen Hinterhorns des Rückenmarks exprimiert werden. S1P verringert über Aktivierung Gi-Protein-gekoppelter Rezeptoren die Hemmung der cAMP-Synthese in exzitatorischen Rückenmarksneuronen dieser Laminae, was die antinozizeptive Wirkung von S1P erklären könnte. Zur Aufklärung der Regulation der S1P-Konzentration im Rückenmark nach peripherer nozizeptiver Stimulation sollte die Aktivität S1P metabolisierender Enzyme näher betrachtet werden. Es konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass es nach peripherer nozizeptiver Stimulierung in vitro und in vivo zu einer negativen Rückkopplung durch S1P kommt, basierend auf einer anfänglichen Aktivierung beider SPHKs. Das durch SPHK-1 gebildete S1P vermittelt extrazellulär über den S1P1-Rezeptor die Hemmung der SPHK-1, während es über den S1P2-Rezeptor die SPHK-2 hemmt und dadurch zu einer Absenkung der S1P-Konzentration führt. Das durch SPHK-2 gebildete S1P hingegen wird nicht sezerniert, bedingt demnach keine Hemmung der S1P-Synthese und übt keinen direkten Einfluss auf die akute spinale Schmerzverarbeitung aus. Bei dem antinozizeptiv wirkenden S1P handelt es sich um von SPHK-1 gebildetes und anschließend sezerniertes S1P. Auch in nicht-neuronalen Zellen konnte die negative Rückkopplung detektiert werden und stellt daher einen allgemeinen regulatorischen Mechanismus dar. Des Weiteren sollte die Untersuchung von neu synthetisierten S1P-Rezeptor-Agonisten und Antagonisten weitere Grundlagen für eine neuartige, pharmakologische Schmerztherapie liefern. Vorarbeiten zeigten, dass die intraperitoneale oder intrathekale Gabe des strukturellen S1P-Analogons FTY720 das Schmerzverhalten von Tieren reduziert. Die hemmende Wirkung des FTY720 auf die Eicosanoidsynthese durch direkte Hemmung der cPLA2 kann zur Vermittlung des antinozizeptiven Effekts von FTY720 beitragen. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit wurde gezeigt, dass FTY720-Analoga die PGE2-Synthese in vivo und in vitro hemmen können. Die strukturelle Vorraussetzung für die hemmende Wirkung dieser S1P-Rezeptor-Agonisten und -Antagonisten ist der Besitz eines basischen Zentrums und darüber hinaus die Freiheitsgrade der Substanzen eine Rolle für die Bindung an die cPLA2 spielen. Die Verwendung von FTY720-Analoga, welche keine Aktivierung der für Nebenwirkungen verantwortlichen S1P-Rezeptoren bedingen und dennoch eine Reduktion der Prostaglandin- und cAMP-Synthese vermitteln, wären viel versprechende neue Substanzen zur Behandlung chronischer Schmerzen.
FTY720 is a novel immunosuppressive drug that inhibits the egress of lymphocytes from secondary lymphoid tissues and thymus. In its phosphorylated form FTY720 is a potent S1P receptor agonist. Recently it was also shown that FTY720 can reduce prostaglandin synthesis through the direct inhibition of the cytosolic phospholipase A2 (cPLA2). Since prostaglandins are important mediators of nociception, we studied the effects of FTY720 in different models of nociception. We found that intraperitoneal administration of FTY720 reduced dose-dependently the nociceptive behaviour of rats in the formalin assay. Although the antinociceptive doses of FTY720 were too low to alter the lymphocyte count, prostanoid concentrations in the plasma were dramatically reduced. Surprisingly, intrathecally administered FTY720 reduced the nociceptive behaviour in the formalin assay without altering spinal prostaglandin synthesis, indicating that additional antinociceptive mechanisms beside the inhibition of prostaglandin synthesis are involved. Accordingly, FTY720 reduced also the nociceptive behaviour in the spared nerve injury model for neuropathic pain which does not depend on prostaglandin synthesis. In this model the antinociceptive effect of FTY720 was similar to gabapentin, a commonly used drug to treat neuropathic pain. Taken together we show for the first time that FTY720 possesses antinociceptive properties and that FTY720 reduces nociceptive behaviour during neuropathic pain.