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In dem Entwurf einer European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species T-PVS (2002) 8 werden verstärkte Forschungsaktivitäten der Mitgliedstaaten angeregt, die nicht nur auf den biologischen Bereich oder Bekämpfung invasiver Arten beschränkt bleiben, sondern auch die Bewertung der Auswirkungen auf Gesundheitswesen und Volkswirtschaft untersuchen sollen. Derartige Studien wurden bisher nur für die Vereinigten Staaten von Amerika oder mit eher regionalen Charakter durchgeführt. Aus diesem Grunde wurden 20 Tiere und Pflanzen aus verschiedenen Problemgebieten (Gesundheitsgefährdende Arten, Schäden in Forst-, Land-, und Fischereiwirtschaft, im kommunalen Bereich, an aquatischen und terrestrischen Verkehrswegen sowie Kosten von Arten, die einheimische Spezies gefährden oder in der Empfehlung 77 der Berner Konvention aufgeführt sind) ausgewählt und beispielhaft für das Gebiet Deutschlands bearbeitet. Die entstehenden Kosten wurden in drei Kategorien aufgeschlüsselt: a) direkte ökonomische Schäden, beispielsweise durch Vorratsschädlinge, b) ökologische Schäden, verursacht durch Pflege und Schutz gefährdeter heimischer Arten, Biozönosen oder Ökosysteme und c) Kosten für Maßnahmen zur Bekämpfung invasiver Arten. Es zeigte sich, dass auf Grund der Datenlage sowie der unterschiedlichen Biologie und Ökologie der invasiven Arten jeweils individuelle Ansätze notwendig waren. Die hier ermittelten Kosten unterscheiden sich stark von Art zu Art. Nicht alle untersuchten Arten verursachen ökonomische Schäden. Eine differenzierte Betrachtung von Neobiota ist nach dem Prinzip der Einzelfallbewertung erforderlich. Die Monetisierung von ökologischen Schäden gelang hierbei nur in wenigen Fällen. Weitergehende, mehrjährige Studien sollten willingness to pay-Analysen einbeziehen, um offen gebliebene Fragen zu beantworten.
Like most jurisdictions, Australia is managing a broad range of invasive alien species. Here, we provide the first holistic quantification of how much invasive species impact Australia’s economy, and how much Australia spends on their management. In the 01–02 financial year (June to July), the combined estimated cost (economic losses and control) of invasive species was $9.8 billion, rising to $13.6 billion in the 11–12 financial year. Approximately $726 million of grants funded through the Commonwealth of Australia (i.e. federal funding) was spent on invasive species management and research between 1996 to 2013. In 01–02, total national expenditure on invasive species was $2.31 billion, rising to $3.77 billion in 11–12. Agriculture accounted for more than 90% of the total cost. For 01–02 and 11–12, these expenditure figures equate to $123 and $197 per person per year respectively, as well as 0.32 and 0.29% of GDP respectively. All values provided here are most likely to be underestimates of the real values due to the significant constraints of the data obtainable. Invasive species are clearly a significant economic burden in Australia. Given the extent of the issue of invasive species globally, there is a clear need for better quantifications of both economic loss and expenditure in more jurisdictions, as well as in Australia.
Biosynthetic human insulin and insulin analogues are the mainstay of insulin therapy for both type 1 and type 2 diabetes although access to human insulin at affordable prices remains a global issue. The world is experiencing an exponential rise in the prevalence of diabetes presenting an urgent need to establish effective diabetes therapy in countries burdened by inadequate health care budgets, malnutrition and infectious diseases. Recombinant human insulin has replaced animal insulins and animal-based semisynthetic human insulin thereby available in sufficient quantities and at affordable prices able to provide global access to insulin therapy. In many patients, analog insulins can offer additional clinical benefit, although at a considerably higher price thus severely restricting availability in low income countries. The approval process for recombinant human insulins (i.e. biosimilars) and analogue insulins is highly variable in the developing countries in contrast to Europe and in North America, where it is well established within a strict regulatory framework. This review aims to discuss the future access to human insulin therapy in a global context with an ever increasing burden of diabetes and significant economic implications.
The European Strategy on Invasive Alien Species T-PWS(2002) 8 mandates intensified research by member nations on invasive species. This research will not be restricted solely to the biology and remediation of invasive species, but will also evaluate their adverse health effects and economic impact. Previous studies of these issues have only been carried out in the Unites States of America, or in a limited, regional manner. Consequently, 20 plant and animal species from various problem areas (species which pose a threat to public health; losses to agriculture, fisheries, and forestry; damage to public roads and waterways; costs associated with the protection of native species threatened by non-native species as mandated by Recommendation 77 of the Bern Convention were assessed in Germany nation-wide. The accruing costs were sorted into 3 categories: a) direct economic losses, such as those caused by destructive pest species; b) ecological costs, in the form of extra care and protection of native taxa, biotopes, or ecosystems threatened by invasive species; c) costs of measures to combat invasive species. Because of the nature of available data, as well as the different biology and ecology of the invasive species, each had to be treated individually, and the associated costs vary greatly from species to species. Moreover, not all of the species investigated cause economic losses. Accordingly, a nuanced approach to alien species is essential. Cost assessment of losses deriving from ecological damage was only possible in a few cases. Ongoing, multi-year studies incorporating cost/benefit analysis will be necessary to resolve remaining issues.