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Die postnatale Neovaskularisierung ist eine wichtige Vorraussetzung um Gewebe vor kritischer Ischämie zu schützen. Eine der Grundlagen dieses Prozesses bilden die Angiogenese, bei der neue Kapillaren durch Proliferation und Migration von Endothelzellen aus bereits vorhandenen Blutgefäßen entstehen. Ein zweiter Eckpfeiler ist die Vaskulogenese, die unter anderem durch zirkulierende endotheliale Vorläuferzellen (EPC) vermittelt wird. Homeobox-Gene der Klasse 1 (Hox) sind Transkriptionsfaktoren, die während der Embryonalentwicklung an der Organogenese und der Entwicklung des kardiovaskulären Systems beteiligt sind. Verschiedene Studien weisen darauf hin, dass Homeobox-Proteine auch im adulten Organismus bei der transkriptionellen Regulation von Genen der Angio- und Vaskulogenese eine wichtige Rolle spielen. Die in dieser Arbeit vorliegenden Ergebnisse zeigen eine essentielle Rolle von HoxA9 für die postnatale Neovaskularisierung sowie für die funktionelle Integrität von Endothelzellen und endothelialen Progenitorzellen. HoxA9-defiziente Mäuse hatten einen signifikant verringerten Blutfluss nach einer Hinterlauflauf-Ischämie. Für die reduzierte Neovaskularisierung des ischämischen Gewebes, genügte der Verlust eines einzigen HoxA9-Wildtypallels. Außerdem zeigen HoxA9-defiziente Endothelzellen in vitro eine stark gehemmte Migration sowie eine verringerte Gefäßstrukturbildung. Zusätzlich war auch deren Interaktion mit EPC im Matrigel verschlechtert. Eine Bestätigung dieser Beobachtung zeigten Untersuchungen an endothelialen Vorläuferzellen, die ebenfalls einen Verlust angiogener Funktionen bei verminderter HoxA9-Expression aufwiesen. Neben der postnatalen Neovaskularisierung konnten erste Untersuchungen embryonaler Allantois zeigen, das HoxA9 vermutlich auch in der embryonalen Gefäßbildung beteiligt ist. Diese Theorie wird durch eine nicht-Mendelsche Verteilung der postnatalen Genotypen nach Kreuzung heterozygoter HoxA9-Mäuse unterstützt. Als molekulare Ursachen der Hemmung angiogener Funktionen bei Endothelzellen, konnte die Regulation verschiedener Gene nachgewiesen werden. So ist HoxA9 für die Expression der endothelialen Stickstoffmonoxidsynthase (eNOS), des VEGF-Rezeptors 2 (VEGF-R2), der Adhäsionsmoleküle VE-Cadherin und Integrin v3 sowie des EphB4-Rezeptors von essentieller Bedeutung. Diese von HoxA9 regulierten Gene spielen für die Angio- und Vaskulogenese alle eine entscheidende Rolle. Der EphB4-Rezeptor, die eNOS und der VEGF-R2 werden durch eine direkte Bindung von HoxA9 an den jeweiligen Promotor auf transkriptioneller Ebene reguliert. Bei den Genen Integrin v3 und VE-Cadherin erfolgt die Regulation durch HoxA9 indirekt über andere Gene oder posttranskriptionell. Zusätzlich zum Nachweis der Kontrolle der Genexpression, konnte für den EphB4-Rezeptor nachgewiesen werden, dass dieser von großer Bedeutung für die HoxA9-regulierte Migration ist. Außerdem besitzt der EphB4-Promotor eine für die Regulation der EphB4-Expression durch HoxA9 wichtige Bindungsstelle. In weiteren Versuchen konnte gezeigt werden, dass HoxA9 Schubspannungs-abhängig reguliert wird und dabei auch in die Regulation der Schubspannungs-induzierten Migration und die Schubspannungs-abhängige Expression der untersuchten Zielgene von HoxA9 eingreift. Zusammenfassend zeigen die hier vorgestellten Daten, dass HoxA9 endotheliale Gene vielfältig reguliert, eine entscheidende Rolle bei der Modulation verschiedener endothelialer Funktionen spielt und essentiell für die postnatale Neovaskularisierung ist.
Cytochrome P450 epoxygenases of the 2C family (CYP2C) are highly expressed in the endothelium and metabolize arachidonic acid to different regioisomers of epoxyeicosatrienoic acids (EET). They have a number of roles in the regulation of vascular tone and homeostasis by activating different signal transduction pathways and have recently been reported to be involved in proliferation and angiogenesis. However, the exact mechanisms by which epoxygenases regulate angiogenesis are still unclear. Therefore, the initial aim of the present study was to characterize the relevance of major signalling molecules that are involved in angiogenesis and to investigate possible signalling pathways involved. Initially the effect of CYP2C9 overexpression on expression levels of EphB4, a tyrosine kinase that plays a role in a number of developmental processes, was investigated. EphB4 protein expression was increased in CYP2C9 overexpressing cells without any effects on expression levels of its ligand ephrinB2. To clarify whether EphB4 is a critical determinant of CYP2C9-induced angiogenesis, endothelial cell sprouting was assessed using a collagen gel-based in vitro angiogenesis assay. Following transfection with EphB4 antisense or scrambled oligonucleotides, capillary-like structures were clearly present after 24 hours in cells overexpressing CYP2C9, while EphB4 downregulation abolished CYP2C9-induced sprouting. In addition stimulation of human umbilical vein endothelial cells with VEGF resulted in an increase in CYP2C expression and a subsequent increase of 11,12-EET production; an effect that was abolished by the CYP epoxygenases inhibitor MSPPOH as well as when cells were infected with a dominant negative mutant of AMPK. In vivo 11,12-EET treatment increased EphB4 expression in mesenteric arteries as well as in Matrigel plugs; an effect that was abolished when plugs were impregnated at the same time with small interfering RNA (siRNA) for EphB4. Furthermore, impregnation of Matrigel plugs with VEGF resulted in endothelial cell and smooth muscle cell recruitment into a Matrigel plug and this effect was mediated by CYP2C9-derived EETs as it was prevented by 14,15-EEZE. When infiltration of EET impregnated plugs with endothelial cells and pericytes/smooth muscle cells in vivo was compared to the effects seen in VEGF treated plugs, it was apparent that only EET treatment resulted in the formation of tube like structures that were covered by smooth muscle cells. Therefore, the final aim of the study was to further define the consequences of EET signalling in vivo as well as to characterize its physiological relevance. This hypothesis could be assessed by isolectin injection through the tail-vein where isolectin was taken up only by the EET-impregnated plug. Moreover ultrasound measurements revealed accumulation of contrast agent in EET impregnated plugs compared to control plugs. Taken together our findings emphasize that CYP2C plays a crucial role in the vessel formation process by modulating the effects mediated by two important control elements of the angiogenic response, namely VEGF and EphB4. CYP2C-derived EETs not only participate as second messengers in the angiogenic response, but have the potential to influence much more than angiogenesis by enhancing smooth muscle cell/pericyte recruitment to endothelial cell tubes to promote vascular maturation.
Oxidative stress plays a fundamental role in many conditions. Specifically, redox imbalance inhibits endothelial cell (EC) growth, inducing cell death and senescence. We used global transcriptome profiling to investigate the involvement of noncoding-RNAs in these phenotypes. By RNA-sequencing, transcriptome changes were analyzed in human ECs exposed to H2O2, highlighting a pivotal role of p53-signaling. Bioinformatic analysis and validation in p53-silenced ECs, identified several p53-targets among both mRNAs and long noncoding-RNAs (lncRNAs), including MALAT1 and NEAT1. Among microRNAs (miRNAs), miR-192-5p was the most induced by H2O2 treatment, in a p53-dependent manner. Down-modulated mRNA-targets of miR-192-5p were involved in cell cycle, DNA repair and stress response. Accordingly, miR-192-5p overexpression significantly decreased EC proliferation, inducing cell death. A central role of the p53-pathway was also confirmed by the analysis of differential exon usage: Upon H2O2 treatment, the expression of p53-dependent 5’-isoforms of MDM2 and PVT1 increased selectively. The transcriptomic alterations identified in H2O2-treated ECs were also observed in other physiological and pathological conditions where redox control plays a fundamental role, such as ECs undergoing replicative senescence, skeletal muscles of critical limb-ischemia patients and the peripheral-blood mononuclear cells of long-living individuals. Collectively, these findings indicate a prominent role of noncoding-RNAs in oxidative stress response.
Microtubule-targeting agents (MTAs) are the most widely used chemotherapeutic drugs. Pretubulysin (PT), a biosynthetic precursor of the myxobacterial tubulysins, was recently identified as a novel MTA. Besides its strong anti-tumoral activities, PT attenuates tumor angiogenesis, exerts anti-vascular actions on tumor vessels and decreases cancer metastasis formation in vivo. The aim of the present study was to analyze the impact of PT on the interaction of endothelial and tumor cells in vitro to gain insights into the mechanism underlying its anti-metastatic effect. The influence of PT on tumor cell adhesion and transmigration onto/through the endothelium as well as its influence on cell adhesion molecules and the chemokine system CXCL12/CXCR4 was investigated. Treatment of human endothelial cells with PT increased the adhesion of breast cancer cells to the endothelial monolayer, whereas their transmigration through the endothelium was strongly reduced. Interestingly, the PT-induced upregulation of ICAM-1, VCAM-1 and CXCL12 were dispensable for the PT-evoked tumor cell adhesion. Tumor cells preferred to adhere to collagen exposed within PT-triggered endothelial gaps via β1-integrins on the tumor cell surface. Taken together, our study provides, at least in part, an explanation for the anti-metastatic potential of PT.
The capacity of pathogenic bacteria to adhere to host cells and to avoid subsequent clearance by the host´s immune response is the initial and most decisive step leading to infections. Human pathogenic bacteria circulating in the bloodstream need to find ways to interact with endothelial cells (ECs) lining the blood vessels to infect and colonise the host. The extracellular matrix (ECM) of ECs might represent an attractive initial target for bacterial interaction, as many bacterial adhesins have reported affinities to ECM proteins, particularly fibronectin (Fn). Trimeric autotransporter adhesins (TAA) have been described as important pathogenicity factors of Gram-negative bacteria. The TAA from human pathogenic Bartonella henselae, Bartonella adhesin A (BadA), is one of the longest and best characterised adhesin and represents a prototypic TAA due to its domain architecture. B. henselae, the causative agent of cat scratch disease, endocarditis, and bacillary angiomatosis, adheres to ECs and ECM proteins via BadA interaction.
In this research, it was determined that the interaction between BadA and Fn is essential for B. henselae host cell adhesion. BadA interactions were identified within the heparin-binding domains of Fn, and the exact binding sites were revealed by mass spectrometry analysis of chemically crosslinked whole-cell bacteria and Fn. It turned out that specific BadA interactions with defined Fn regions represent the molecular basis for bacterial adhesion to ECs. These data were confirmed by using BadA-deficient bacteria and CRISPR-Cas FN1 knockout ECs. It was also identified that BadA binds to Fn from both cellular and plasma origin, suggesting that B. henselae binding to Fn might possibly take part in other infection processes apart from bacterial adherence, e.g. evasion from the host cell immune system.
Interactions between TAAs and Fn represent a key step for adherence of B. henselae to ECs. Still, Fn-mediated binding is of more significant importance for pathogenic bacteria than broadly recognised. Fn removal from the ECM environment of ECs, also reduced adherence of Staphylococcus aureus, Borrelia burgdorferi, and Acinetobacter baumannii to host cells Interactions between adhesins and Fn might therefore represent a crucial step for the adhesion of human-pathogenic Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria targeting the ECs as a niche of infection or as means for persistence.
This research demonstrated that combining large-scale analysis approaches to describe protein-protein interactions with supportive functional readouts (binding assays) allows for the discrimination of crucial interactions involved in bacterial adhesion to the host. The herein-described experimental approaches and tools might guide future research for other pathogenic bacteria and represent an initial point for the future generation of anti-virulence strategies to inhibit bacterial binding to host cells.