Refine
Document Type
- Article (22)
- Contribution to a Periodical (1)
- Doctoral Thesis (1)
Has Fulltext
- yes (24)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (24)
Keywords
- forensic entomology (6)
- Forensic entomology (5)
- Calliphoridae (4)
- Thailand (4)
- Blow flies (2)
- Development (2)
- Geographic variation (2)
- Lucilia sericata (2)
- Post-mortem interval (2)
- Accumulated degree days (1)
Institute
- Medizin (19)
- Institut für Ökologie, Evolution und Diversität (7)
- Fachübergreifend (1)
- Präsidium (1)
11 mit Salix spp. assoziierte Gallmücken-Arten (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae: Oligotrophini) wurden einer morphometrischen Analyse unterzogen. Dabei fanden 18 allgemeine und 10 geschlechtsspezifische Merkmale Berücksichtigung. Von sechs Arten wurden darüber hinaus 10 larvale Merkmale morphometrisch erfasst. Insgesamt wurden 325 Imagines und 45 Larven vermessen. Die Ergebnisse lassen eine neue systematische Einteilung auf Gattungs- und Artebene zu. Neben der morphologisch und biologisch bereits vorher eindeutig zu differenzierenden Gattung Iteomyia ist eine Aufteilung des verbleibenden Artenschwarms in drei Gruppen erkennen. Als wesentliche trennende Merkmale zeigen sich Antennen und geschlechtspezifische Charakteristika wie die Länge des Ovipositors bei den Imagines und die Ausbildung der für die Larven charakteristischen Spatula. Die morphologische Differenzierung findet ihre Entsprechung in qualitativen, biologischen Merkmalen der Tiere. Aus diesem Grund wird die Aufteilung der auf Salix spp. gallenbildenden Cecidomyiidae in mindestens vier Gattungen vorgeschlagen. Die Gattung Iteomyia behält ihren aktuellen Status und wird von der einzigen Art repräsentiert, die auf der Blattflächen von Weiden Gallen erzeugt (I. capreae). Die Dasineura-Gruppe enthält die sich in Blattrandgallen entwickelnden Gallmücken (D. auritae, D. marginemtorquens und D. roskami) sowie die inquilinen Arten, die zur Verpuppung einen Kokon anlegen und mindestens zwei Generationen im Jahr realisieren (in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht: D. schreiteri). In Rabdophaga werden jene Taxa integriert, die sich im Sproßbereich ihrer Wirtspflanzen unmittelbar unter der Rindeentwickeln, ohne ausgeprägte Gallenbildungen auszulösen (in der vorliegenden Arbeit untersucht: R. saliciperda und R. repentiperda) Ihre Entwicklung ist univoltin, die Verpuppung erfolgt ohne Anfertigung eines Kokons. In einer noch genauer zu definierenden vierten Gruppierung (hier provisorisch mit dem Gattungsnamen „Salicicola“ bezeichnet) fasst die Arten zusammen, die an den Sprossen ihrer Wirtspflanzen deutliche Gallenbildungen hervorrufen. Auch sie sind univoltin und verpuppen sich im Sproßbereich ohne Anfertigung eines Kokons. Die Zuordnung des in der vorliegenden Studie nicht untersuchten Artenkomplexes, den Knospengallenerzeugern, ist noch nicht geklärt. Eine endgültige Klärung der hier vorgeschlagenen systematischen Einteilung kann nur das Ergebnis einer umfassenden Revision sämtlicher mit Salix spp. assoziierten Gallmücken sein. Die polyphage Weidenrosenmücke Rabdophaga rosaria lässt sich mit Hilfe einer Hauptkomponenten-Analyse morphometrisch in vier Cluster gruppieren, die in der systematischen Aufteilung der von ihnen genutzten Salix spp. (alba, aurita/caprea/cinerea, purpurea und repens) ihre Entsprechung finden. Die festgestellte Auftrennung der Weidenrosenmücke illustriert anschaulich die Idee der sequentiellen Evolution, nach der aufgrund der engen phänologischen, biochemischen und physiologischen Interaktionen zwischen spezialisierten Phytophagen und ihren Wirtspflanzen eine schrittweise hochgradige Anpassung der beteiligten Organismengruppen zu erwarten ist. Wie im vorliegenden Fall steht am Ende solch einer Entwicklung die Herausbildung sogenannter Biotypen, deren Eigenständigkeit durch morphologische Unterschiede untermauert wird. Die Cecidomyiidae Iteomyia capreae ruft je nach genutzter Wirtspflanzenart verschiedene Gallenformen mit unterschiedlichem Verteilungsmuster auf den Blattflächen hervor. Die sich in den beiden Gallentypen entwickelnden Tiere unterscheiden sich morphologisch und lassen sich in Abhängigkeit der von ihnen genutzten Wirtspflanze ähnlich wie Rabdophaga rosaria in zwei Biotypen einteilen. Die auf Salix caprea lebenden Tiere weisen eine geringere Gallenzahl pro Blatt auf als die auf S. cinerea lebenden Tiere. Die beiden Biotypen zeigen signifikante Unterschiede hinsichtlich ihrer Fertilität. Der S. caprea-Typus, der seine einkammrigen Gallen über die gesamte Blattfläche verteilt, zeigt eine höhere Fruchtbarkeit als der S. cinerea-Typus, der ein- bis mehrkammrige Gallen entlang des Blattmittelnervs anlegt. Gleichzeitig zeigen sich signifikante Unterschiede in der durch Parasitoiden hervorgerufenen Mortalität. Die kleinen, über die gesamte Blattfläche verstreuten Gallen des S. caprea-Typs weisen eine geringere Parasitierungsrate auf als die großen, am Mittelnerv konzentrierten Gallen des S. cinerea-Typs. Von acht der elf untersuchten Gallmückenspezies wurde der Feindartenkomplex analysiert. Zu diesem Zweck wurden an 30 Standorten in Deutschland und Dänemark über 7500 Gallen gesammelt und in Zucht genommen. Aufgrund der vielkammrigen Gallen einzelner Arten konnten insgesamt mehr als 12500 Gallenkammern auf ihre Artenzusammensetzung hin analysiert werden. Insgesamt konnten 57 Parasitoiden-Arten nachgewiesen werden, die sich auf sieben Familien parasitischer Hymenopteren verteilen. Am artenreichsten vertreten sind die Pteromalidae und Platygasteridae mit einem Anteil von jeweils 24,56 % (14 spp). Der Artenreichtum ist mit fast zehn Spezies pro Gegenspielerkomplex ungewöhnlich hoch und liegt deutlich über den Werten anderer Gallenerzeuger-Gruppen. 27 Spezies (47,37 %) konnten keiner bekannten Art zugeordnet werden. Es wird vermutet, dass sich darunter zahlreiche, für die Wissenschaft neue Arten befinden. Insgesamt 42 spp. (73,7 %) der nachgewiesenen Parasitoidenarten wurden nur aus einer der untersuchten Wirtsarten gezüchtet, lediglich fünf Arten attackierten mehr als zwei der untersuchten Wirtsarten. Das Verhältnis von Idiobionten (töten den Wirt zum Zeitpunkt der Parasitierung ab) zu Koinobionten (erlauben dem Wirt zunächst ein weiteres Wachstum) ist mit 53,3 % zu 46,7 % annähernd gleich. Für 37 Taxa (64,91 %) konnten Angaben über ihre Wirtsbindung gemacht werden. Es zeigte sich, daß der Feindkomplex der untersuchten Gallmücken von stark spezialisierten Arten dominiert wird. Alle Arten sind bisher nur an gallenerzeugenden oder zumindest endophytisch lebenden Wirten nachgewiesen worden, 28 spp. sind darüber hinaus auf gallenbildende Cecidomyiidae spezialisiert, 10 spp. parasitieren nur cecidogene Gallmücken auf Weiden. Am artenreichsten war mit 24 spp. der Gegenspielerkomplex des Blattgallenerzeugers Iteomyia capreae, gefolgt von den Blattrandgallenerzeugern Dasineura auritae (12 spp.) und D. marginemtorquens (11 spp.), dem Sproßgallenerzeugern Rabdophaga salicis (10 spp.) und der Inquilinen-Art Dasineura schreiteri (10 spp.) sowie der unmittelbar unter der Rinde ihrer Wirtspflanzen lebenden sogenannten Schrotschuß-Gallmücke R. saliciperda (6 spp.). Mit nur drei bzw. vier Arten erwiesen sich die Gegenspielerkomplexe der Weidenrosen-Gallmücke Rabdophaga rosaria und der Sproßgallen erzeugenden R. degeeri am artenärmsten. Die Ähnlichkeits-Analyse der jeweiligen Gegenspielerspektren ließ eine große Eigenständigkeit erkennen, die geringen Ähnlichkeiten sprechen für einen hohen Anteil von Spezialisten in den Parasitoidenkomplexen. In den Gegenspielerspektren dominierten nur jeweils zwei bis fünf Arten. 19 der 57 Arten wiesen eudominante oder dominate Abundanz-Werte auf. Dabei waren vor allem die Arten der Gattungen Synopeas, Torymus, Platygaster und Aprostocetus von größerer Bedeutung für die Mortalitätsraten ihrer Wirte. Die Erreger der verschiedenen Gallentypen waren unterschiedlichen Mortalitätsraten durch Parasitoide unterworfen. Dasineura auritae und D. marginemtorquens, die Erzeuger von Blattrandgallen, wiesen die höchsten durchschnittlichen Parasitierungsraten auf (43,04 %), die Inquiline D. schreiteri die geringste (20,25 %). Die Sproßgallenerzeuger Rabdophaga salicis und R. degeerii wiesen nur eine geringfügig höhere Mortalität durch Parasitierung (24,31 %) auf, gefolgt von der Weidenrosen-Gallmücke Rabdophaga rosaria (25,47 %) und den Blattgallen von Iteomyia capreae (31,26 %). Der Feindkomplex der untersuchten Cecidomyiidae wurde mit dem der an Salix spp. gallenbildenden Tenthredinidae verglichen. Bislang sind für die mit Salix spp. assoziierten cecidogenen Gallmücken und Blattwespen in Nord- und Mitteleuropa über Gegenspielerarten nachgewiesen worden, von denen lediglich sieben in beiden Wirtsfamilien auftreten. Brutparasiten, die vor allem bei den Blattgallenerzeugern (Pontania spp.) vorhanden sind, fehlen bei den Gallmücken völlig. Sowohl Cecidomyiidae als auch Tenthredinidae werden vor allem von spezialisierten Parasitoiden attackiert, deren Wirtskreis sich auf diese gallenbildenden Herbivoren-Gruppen beschränkt. Innerhalb der Gegenspielerspektren sind jeweils über 80 % der Parasitoidenarten bislang nur in einem Gallentyp nachgewiesen worden. Der Artenpool der Blattwespen-Parasitoiden wird mit fast 60 % von den Ichneumonoidea dominiert. Bei den Gallmücken fehlt diese ParasitoidenÜberfamilie völlig, hier sind die Chalcidoidea mit über 70 % der Arten das bestimmende Element. Dagegen stellen die in den Tenthrediniden-Gallen lediglich mit zwei Arten vertretenen Platygasteroidea im Gegenspielerspektrum der Cecidomyiidae mehr als 25 % aller Spezies. Bei den Blattwespen tritt nur ein knappes Drittel der Parasitoidenarten, deren Biologie näher bekannt ist, als Koinobionten auf. Bei den Gallmücken erhöht sich der Anteil dieser Feindarten-Gilde auf über 50 %. Vergleicht man die einzelnen Gallentypen, so sind auch in der Parasitierungs-Strategie der beteiligten Arten große Unterschiede zu verzeichnen. Die meisten Parasitoide der Tenthredinidae befallen junge Wirtslarven, bei den Gallmücken ist dagegen der Typ des Junglarven-Parasitoiden nur selten anzutreffen: Wird ein frühes Wirtsstadium angegriffen (in der Regel durch Koinobionten), so erfolgt bereits die Belegung des Wirtseies. Blattwespen weisen höhere Mortalitätsraten als Gallmücken auf. Darüber hinaus zeigt sowohl bei den Blattwespen als auch bei den Gallmücken die durch Parasitierung hervorgerufene Mortalität prägnante Unterschiede zwischen den einzelnen Wirtsarten und Gallentypen, aber auch innerhalb einer Art gibt es je nach Lokalität und Untersuchungsjahr deutliche Schwankungen. Bei den Tenthredinidae liegt die durchschnittliche Parasitierungsrate der Blattgallenerzeuger (53,3 %) deutlich über den Werten der Sproßgallenerzeuger (41,7 %) Entsprechende große Unterschiede lassen sich für die Blattrandgallenerzeuger (43,04 %) und Sproßgallenerzeuger (24,31 %) der Cecidomyiidae feststellen.
Forensic entomology
(2017)
For many members of the forensic community, insects still have an exotic status. This may be one reason why forensic entomology, the analysis of insect evidence for forensic and legal purposes, has not yet achieved the significance it deserves in forensic sciences. The present special issue may help to change that. ...
Background: Correct species identification of blow flies is a crucial step for understanding their biology, which can be used not only for designing fly control programs, but also to determine the minimum time since death. Identification techniques are usually based on morphological and molecular characters. However, the use of classical morphology requires experienced entomologists for correct identification; while molecular techniques rely on a sound laboratory expertise and remain ambiguous for certain taxa. Landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis of insect wings has been extensively applied in species identification. However, few wing morphometric analyses of blow fly species have been published.
Methods: We applied a landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis of wings for species identification of 12 medically and forensically important blow fly species of Thailand. Nineteen landmarks of each right wing of 372 specimens were digitised. Variation in wing size and wing shape was analysed and evaluated for allometric effects. The latter confirmed the influence of size on the shape differences between species and sexes. Wing shape variation among genera and species were analysed using canonical variates analysis followed by a cross-validation test.
Results: Wing size was not suitable for species discrimination, whereas wing shape can be a useful tool to separate taxa on both, genus and species level depending on the analysed taxa. It appeared to be highly reliable, especially for classifying Chrysomya species, but less robust for a species discrimination in the genera Lucilia and Hemipyrellia. Allometry did not affect species separation but had an impact on sexual shape dimorphism.
Conclusions: A landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis of wings is a useful additional method for species discrimination. It is a simple, reliable and inexpensive method, but it can be time-consuming locating the landmarks for a large scale study and requires non-damaged wings for analysis.
Background: Chrysomya megacephala is a blow fly species of medical and forensic importance worldwide. Understanding its bionomics is essential for both designing effective fly control programs and its use in forensic investigations.
Methods: The daily flight activity, seasonal abundance related to abiotic factors (temperature, relative humidity and rainfall) and reproductive potential of this species was investigated. Adult flies were sampled twice a month for one year from July 2013 to June 2014 in three different ecotypes (forest area, longan orchard and palm plantation) of Chiang Mai Province, northern Thailand, using semi-automatic funnel traps. One-day tainted beef offal was used as bait.
Results: A total of 88,273 flies were sampled, of which 82,800 flies (93.8%) were caught during the day (from 06:00 to 18:00 h); while 5473 flies (6.2%) were caught at night (from 18:00 to 06:00 h). Concurrently, the abundance of C. megacephala was higher in the forest area (n = 31,873; 36.1%) and palm plantation (n = 31,347; 35.5%), compared to the longan orchard (n = 25,053; 28.4%). The number of females was significantly higher than that of males, exhibiting a female to male sex ratio of 2.36:1. Seasonal fluctuation revealed the highest abundance of C. megacephala in summer, but low numbers in the rainy season and winter. Fly density was significantly positively correlated with temperature, but negatively correlated with relative humidity. No correlation between numbers of C. megacephala with rainfall was found. Activity occurred throughout the daytime with high numbers from 06:00 to 18:00 h in summer and 12:00 to 18:00 h in the rainy season and winter. As for the nocturnal flight activity, a small number of flies were collected in summer and the rainy season, while none were collected in the winter. Dissection of the females indicated that fecundity was highest during the rainy season, followed by winter and summer.
Conclusions: Since the assessment of daily, seasonal activity and the reproductive potential of C. megacephala remains a crucial point to be elucidated, this extensive study offers insights into bionomics, which may be considered for integrated fly control strategies and forensic entomology issues.
Blow flies are the first insect group to colonize on a dead body and thus correct species identification is a crucial step in forensic investigations for estimating the minimum postmortem interval, as developmental times are species-specific. Due to the difficulty of traditional morphology-based identification such as the morphological similarity of closely related species and uncovered taxonomic keys for all developmental stages, DNA-based identification has been increasing in interest, especially in high biodiversity areas such as Thailand. In this study, the effectiveness of long mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and II (COI and COII) sequences (1247 and 635 bp, respectively) in identifying 16 species of forensically relevant blow flies in Thailand (Chrysomya bezziana, Chrysomya chani, Chrysomya megacephala, Chrysomya nigripes, Chrysomya pinguis, Chrysomya rufifacies, Chrysomya thanomthini, Chrysomya villeneuvi, Lucilia cuprina, Lucilia papuensis, Lucilia porphyrina, Lucilia sinensis, Hemipyrellia ligurriens, Hemipyrellia pulchra, Hypopygiopsis infumata, and Hypopygiopsis tumrasvini) was assessed using distance-based (Kimura two-parameter distances based on Best Match, Best Close Match, and All Species Barcodes criteria) and tree-based (grouping taxa by sequence similarity in the neighbor-joining tree) methods. Analyses of the obtained sequence data demonstrated that COI and COII genes were effective markers for accurate species identification of the Thai blow flies. This study has not only demonstrated the genetic diversity of Thai blow flies, but also provided a reliable DNA reference database for further use in forensic entomology within the country and other regions where these species exist.
Blow flies are worldwide the most important insects from a forensic point of view. In Thailand, aside from the two most common species, Chrysomya megacephala (F.) and Chrysomya rufifacies (Macquart), Chrysomya chani Kurahashi was also found to be of forensic importance. We present a case of a human female cadaver in its bloated stage of decomposition, discovered at Pachangnoi Subdistrict, northern Thailand. Entomological sampling during the autopsy displayed an assemblage of numerous dipteran larvae. Macroscopic observations showed the coexistence of third instar larvae of the three blow flies C. megacephala, Chrysomya villeneuvi Patton, an unknown blow fly species and one muscid, Hydrotaea sp. The minimum post-mortem interval was estimated to be six days, based on the developmental rate of C. megacephala. The ID of the unknown larva, which is the focus of this report, was revealed later as C. chani by DNA sequencing, using a 1205 bp of cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI). The occurrence of C. chani on a human body revealed the need to analyse and describe the morphology of its immature stage, to enable forensic entomologists to identify this fly species in future cases. The morphological examination of the third instar was performed, revealing peculiar characteristics: protuberant tubercles encircling abdominal segments; 9–11 lobes on the anterior spiracle; six prominent pairs of tubercles along the peripheral rim of the eighth abdominal segment; a heavily sclerotized complete peritreme of the posterior spiracles. A key to differentiate the third instar of blow flies of forensic importance in Thailand is provided.
The bluebottle blow fly Calliphora vicina is a common species distributed throughout Europe that can play an important role as forensic evidence in crime investigations. Developmental rates of C. vicina from distinct populations from Germany and England were compared under different temperature regimes to explore the use of growth data from different geographical regions for local case work. Wing morphometrics and molecular analysis between these populations were also studied as indicators for biological differences. One colony each of German and English C. vicina were cultured at the Institute of Legal Medicine in Frankfurt, Germany. Three different temperature regimes were applied, two constant (16°C & 25°C) and one variable (17–26°C, room temperature = RT). At seven time points (600, 850, 1200, 1450, 1800, 2050, and 2400 accumulated degree hours), larval lengths were measured; additionally, the durations of the post feeding stage and intrapuparial metamorphosis were recorded. For the morphometric and molecular study, 184 females and 133 males from each C. vicina population (Germany n = 3, England n = 4) were sampled. Right wings were measured based on 19 landmarks and analyzed using canonical variates analysis and discriminant function analysis. DNA was isolated from three legs per specimen (n = 61) using 5% chelex. A 784 bp long fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome b gene was sequenced; sequences were aligned and phylogenetically analyzed. Similar larval growth rates of C. vicina were found from different geographic populations at different temperatures during the major part of development. Nevertheless, because minor differences were found a wider range of temperatures and sampling more time points should be analyzed to obtain more information relevant for forensic case work. Wing shape variation showed a difference between the German and English populations (P<0.0001). However, separation between the seven German and English populations at the smaller geographic scale remained ambiguous. Molecular phylogenetic analysis by maximum likelihood method could not unambiguously separate the different geographic populations at a national (Germany vs England) or local level.
Determining the age of juvenile blow flies is one of the key tasks of forensic entomology when providing evidence for the minimum post mortem interval. While the age determination of blow fly larvae is well established using morphological parameters, the current study focuses on molecular methods for estimating the age of blow flies during the metamorphosis in the pupal stage, which lasts about half the total juvenile development. It has already been demonstrated in several studies that the intraspecific variance in expression of so far used genes in blow flies is often too high to assign a certain expression level to a distinct age, leading to an inaccurate prediction. To overcome this problem, we previously identified new markers, which show a very sharp age dependent expression course during pupal development of the forensically-important blow fly Calliphora vicina Robineau–Desvoidy 1830 (Diptera: Calliphoridae) by analyzing massive parallel sequencing (MPS) generated transcriptome data. We initially designed and validated two quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) assays for each of 15 defined pupal ages representing a daily progress during the total pupal development if grown at 17 °C. We also investigated whether the performance of these assays is affected by the ambient temperature, when rearing pupae of C. vicina at three different constant temperatures—namely 17 °C, 20 °C and 25 °C. A temperature dependency of the performance could not be observed, except for one marker. Hence, for each of the defined development landmarks, we can present gene expression profiles of one to two markers defining the mentioned progress in development.
Jens Amendt hat die internationale Konferenz der Forensischen Entomologie von seinem Rechner aus in Frankfurt geleitet. Sein Resümee: Die virtuelle Veranstaltung mit 260 Teilnehmenden hat insgesamt sehr gut geklappt, aber Mikrofon und Kamera sollte man gerade als Organisator immer gut im Auge behalten.
Knowledge on the postmortem interval (PMI) of wild boar (Sus scrofa) carcasses is crucial in the event of an outbreak of African swine fever in a wild boar population. Therefore, a thorough understanding of the decomposition process of this species in different microhabitats is necessary. We describe the decomposition process of carcasses exposed in cages. Trial 1 compared a wild boar and a domestic pig (Sus scrofa domesticus) under similar conditions; Trial 2 was performed with three wild boar piglets in the sunlight, shade, or in a wallow, and Trial 3 with two adult wild boar in the sun or shade. The wild boar decomposed more slowly than the domestic pig, which shows that standards derived from forensic studies on domestic pigs are not directly applicable to wild boar. The carcasses exposed to the sun decomposed faster than those in the shade did, and the decomposition of the carcass in the wallow took longest. To assess the state of decomposition, we adapted an existing total body scoring system originally developed for humans. Based on our studies, we propose a checklist tailored to wild boar carcasses found in the field that includes the most important information for a reliable PMI estimation.
Determination of a minimal postmortem interval via age estimation of necrophagous diptera has been restricted to the juvenile stages and the time until emergence of the adult fly, i.e. up until 2–6 weeks depending on species and temperature. Age estimation of adult flies could extend this period by adding the age of the fly to the time needed for complete development. In this context pteridines are promising metabolites, as they accumulate in the eyes of flies with increasing age. We studied adults of the blow fly Lucilia sericata at constant temperatures of 16 °C and 25 °C up to an age of 25 days and estimated their pteridine levels by fluorescence spectroscopy. Age was given in accumulated degree days (ADD) across temperatures. Additionally, a mock case was set up to test the applicability of the method. Pteridine increases logarithmically with increasing ADD, but after 70–80 ADD the increase slows down and the curve approaches a maximum. Sex had a significant impact (p < 4.09 × 10−6) on pteridine fluorescence level, while body-size and head-width did not. The mock case demonstrated that a slight overestimation of the real age (in ADD) only occurred in two out of 30 samples. Age determination of L. sericata on the basis of pteridine levels seems to be limited to an age of about 70 ADD, but depending on the ambient temperature this could cover an extra amount of time of about 5–7 days after completion of the metamorphosis.
The estimation of the minimum time since death is one of the main applications of forensic entomology. This can be done by calculating the age of the immature stage of necrophagous flies developing on the corpse, which is confined to approximately 2–4 weeks, depending on temperature and species of the first colonizing wave of flies. Adding the age of the adult flies developed on the dead body could extend this time frame up to several weeks when the body is in a building or closed premise. However, the techniques for accurately estimating the age of adult flies are still in their beginning stages or not sufficiently validated. Here we review the current state of the art of analysing the aging of flies by evaluating the ovarian development, the amount of pteridine in the eyes, the degree of wing damage, the modification of their cuticular hydrocarbon patterns, and the increasing number of growth layers in the cuticula. New approaches, including the use of age specific molecular profiles based on the levels of gene and protein expression and the application of near infrared spectroscopy, are introduced, and the forensic relevance of these methods is discussed.
Simple Summary: Forensic entomologists are most often tasked with determining when arthropods colonized living or deceased vertebrates. In most cases, this estimation involves humans; however, pets, livestock, and other domesticated animals can also be illegally killed or victims of neglect. Globally, there is no standard format for the case report, and much of the content is based on the personal preferences of the analyst or standards set within a country. The article below proposes a general overview of sections to be considered when drafting a case report.
Abstract: Forensic practitioners analyzing entomological evidence are faced with numerous challenges when presenting their findings to law practitioners, particularly in terms of terminology used to describe insect age, what this means for colonization time of remains, and the limitations to estimates made. Due to varying legal requirements in different countries, there is no standard format for the entomological case report prepared, nor any guidelines as to the sections that are required, optional or unnecessary in a case report. The authors herein propose sections that should be considered when drafting an entomological case report. The criteria under which entomological evidence is analyzed are discussed, as well as the limitations for each criterion. The concept of a global, standardized entomological case report is impossible to achieve due to national legislative differences, but the authors here propose a basic template which can be adapted and changed according to the needs of the practitioner. Furthermore, while the discussion is fairly detailed, capturing all differences between nations could not be accomplished, and those initiating casework for the first time are encouraged to engage other practicing forensic entomologists or professional associations within their own nation or region, to ensure a complete report is generated that meets lab or national requirements, prior to generating a finalized report.
Recent reports have shown a dramatic loss in insect species and biomass. Since forensic entomology relies on the presence of insects, the question is whether this decline effects the discipline. The present review confirms that numerous studies document insect population declines or even extinction, despite the fact that the rates of decline and the methods used to demonstrate it are still much debated. However, with regard to a decline in necrophagous insects, there is little or only anecdotal data available. A hypothetical decrease in species diversity and population density in necrophagous insects could lead to a delayed colonization of dead bodies and a modified succession pattern due to the disappearance or new occurrence of species or their altered seasonality. Climate change as one of the drivers of insect decline will probably also have an impact on necrophagous insects and forensic entomology, leading to reduced flight and oviposition activity, modified growth rates and, therefore, an over- or underestimation of a minimum postmortem interval. Global warming with increased temperature and extreme weather requires a better understanding about necrophagous insect responses to environmental variations. Here, transgeneration effects in particular should be analysed in greater depth as this will help to understand rapid adaptation and plasticity in insects of forensic importance.
Estimating the age of the developmental stages of the blow fly Calliphora vicina (Diptera: Calliphoridae) is of forensic relevance for the determination of the minimum post-mortem interval (PMImin). Fly eggs and larvae can be aged using anatomical and morphological characters and their modification during development. However, such methods can only hardly be applied for aging fly pupae. Previous study described age estimation of C. vicina pupae using gene expression, but just when reared at constant temperatures, but fluctuating temperatures represent a more realistic scenario at a crime scene. Therefore, age-dependent gene expression of C. vicina pupae were compared at 3 fluctuating and 3 constant temperatures, the latter representing the mean values of the fluctuating profiles. The chosen marker genes showed uniform expression patterns during metamorphosis of C. vicina pupae bred at different temperature conditions (constant or fluctuating) but the same mean temperature (e.g. constant 10 °C vs. fluctuating 5–15 °C). We present an R-based statistical tool, which enables estimation of the age of the examined pupa based on the analysed gene expression data.
Highlights
• Forensic experts should be questioned about their education and experience.
• Reliability of methods used to estimate the PMI should be evident when exposed in court.
• Judges should question if the right method was used in the right manner.
• The PMI is an estimate and cannot be interpreted as the actual time of death.
Abstract
When a capital crime is committed the post-mortem interval (PMI) is of particular importance in investigating a suspect’s alibi in court. A forensic expert can use different methods to estimate the PMI. This research focuses on who is considered an expert in court and whether the methods used to estimate the PMI are reliable. In this study, the methods used to estimate the PMI and the experts consulted, available in Dutch jurisprudence, in the period 2010–2019 were investigated. Ninety-four judicial cases were included and multiple experts and methods of estimating the PMI were found. As part of this study, the methods that were used to estimate the PMI in court were subjected to the Daubert criteria. Of these methods, only the Henssge nomogram and entomological methods met the Daubert criteria. However, the methods are only useful when applied by the right forensic expert and in the right manner. Unfortunately, this was not always the case.
The aim of the current study was to analyze two major pitfalls in forensic entomological casework: delayed evidence sampling and the effect of low-temperature storage of the body. For this purpose, temperature profiles of heavily infested corpses during cooling and cases in which insect evidence was collected both at the scene and during autopsy were evaluated with regard to species composition and development stages found. The results show that the temperature in the body bags remained at higher average temperatures up to 10 °C relative to the mortuary cooler, therefore, sufficient for larval development, with significant differences in temperature between larval aggregations on one and the same body. In addition, we found large differences both in species number, species composition, and the developmental stages found at the scene and during the autopsy. These data and observations underscore the importance of sampling evidence at the scene and recording temperatures throughout the cooling period of a body.
This study highlights the importance of insect evidence by evaluating 949 insect-associated cases, including 139 entomological reports, from 2001 to 2019 at the Institute of Legal Medicine Frankfurt/Germany. With a high number of cases in the summer months and a low number in the colder season, 78.5% of the bodies were found indoors, regardless of year or month. In more than 80% of the cases, where PMI information was available (n = 704), the presumed PMI ranged from 1 to 21 days, a period during which entomological evidence can provide a day-specific estimate of PMImin. In cases where insects have been identified to species level (n = 279), most bodies were infested by one or two species with a maximum of 10 different species. Overall, a total of 55 insect species were found. Information on biology, activity and distribution of the most abundant taxa is given and applied for 5 case histories estimating different PMImins of up to over 6 months. Despite proved importance and scientific development of forensic entomology, insects are still rarely considered as a tool in forensic case work. The main reasons are a lack of awareness and (too) late involvement of a forensic entomologist. Our work shows that forensic entomology is an independent discipline that requires specialist expertise.
The analysis of postmortem protein degradation has become of large interest for the estimation of the postmortem interval (PMI). Although several techniques have been published in recent years, protein degradation-based techniques still largely did not exceed basic research stages. Reasons include impractical and complex sampling procedures, as well as highly variable protocols in the literature, making it difficult to compare results. Following a three-step procedure, this study aimed to establish an easily replicable standardized procedure for sampling and processing, and further investigated the reliability and limitations for routine application. Initially, sampling and processing were optimized using a rat animal model. In a second step, the possible influences of sample handling and storage on postmortem protein degradation dynamics were assessed on a specifically developed human extracorporeal degradation model. Finally, the practical application was simulated by the collection of tissue in three European forensic institutes and an international transfer to our forensic laboratory, where the samples were processed and analyzed according to the established protocol.
1. Locating an optimal oviposition site can be a challenging task for female insects, especially when dealing with a patchy, unpredictable and ephemeral food source such as carrion. Understanding the biotic and abiotic parameters that influence the oviposition behaviour of necrophagous flies is not just of great biological importance but also essential for their application in legal investigations.
2. In this study, we monitored the oviposition activity of necrophagous flies (Calliphoridae, Sarcophagidae) using mouse carcasses in an urban (city) and a rural (mixed forest) habitat in Frankfurt/Germany over a 2-year period.
3. Over 240 sampling days, 220,963 larvae of 4 blow fly species and 1 flesh fly were sampled. The most abundant species was the blow fly Lucilia ampullacea, followed by its family members Calliphora vicina and Lucilia caesar, the flesh fly Sarcophaga caerulescens and Lucilia sericata. Up to seven environmental parameters were statistically significant predictors for a colonisation of the carcasses, leading to unique patterns of seasonal and daily oviposition activity for all five species.
4. Overall, the analysis showed that the seasonal adaption (the phenology of each species), the habitat (rural vs. urban) as well as temperature are the most important factors influencing the oviposition behaviour and activity of necrophagous blow flies and flesh flies.
• Mexican and German populations of L. sericata differ in their development times.
• Mexican L. sericata had a shorter development time at 20°C than German flies.
• At 30 °C, German L. sericata pupariated and eclosed earlier than the Mexican flies.
• Differences in study design make the comparison of developmental studies difficult.
Abstract
The cosmopolitan blow fly Lucilia sericata is often used in forensic case work for estimating the minimum postmortem interval (PMImin). For this, the age of immature specimens developing on the dead body is calculated by measuring the time taken to reach the sampled developmental stage at a given temperature. To test whether regional developmental data of L. sericata is valid on a global scale, the time taken to reach different developmental stages was compared between a population from Mexico and one from Germany at two different constant temperatures.
The German population of L. sericata was collected in Frankfurt/Main, while the Mexican population originated near Oaxaca de Juarez and was transported to Germany in the larval stage. Only the F1 generation was used to avoid adaption of the Mexican flies. Eggs were immediately placed at 20 °C and 30 °C. Five times 30 freshly eclosed larvae per replicate (n = 5) were then transferred to a cup of minced meat in separate containers. The larvae were checked every 8 h for migration, pupariation or emergence of adult flies. The time at which the first individual and 50 % of the specimens per container entered each of these stages, was recorded.
Significant differences in the time of development between the two populations were observed at both temperatures. At 20 °C, the first specimens of the Mexican population reached all developmental stages a little (< 1 day to < 2 days) earlier than the German L. sericata. At 30 °C, the Mexican flies also reached the post-feeding stage slightly earlier (0.2 days). However, at 30 °C, the German flies started pupariation significantly earlier (after 5 days) than the Mexican flies (6.9 days) and the adults from Germany also emerged earlier (10.5 days compared to 13.1 days). The same pattern was observed when looking at 50 % of the total number of specimens per container. A comparison with previously published developmental studies was difficult as the experimental design varied widely between studies. However, the results were within the range of most studies. Our study has shown that age estimation can vary widely depending on the population on which the reference data used for the calculations are based. This highlights the importance of using local and population-specific developmental data for estimating the age of blow flies in case work.
• Mexican and German populations of L. sericata differ in their development times.
• Mexican L. sericata had a shorter development time at 20°C than German flies.
• At 30 °C, German L. sericata pupariated and eclosed earlier than the Mexican flies.
• Differences in study design make the comparison of developmental studies difficult.
Abstract
The cosmopolitan blow fly Lucilia sericata is often used in forensic case work for estimating the minimum postmortem interval (PMImin). For this, the age of immature specimens developing on the dead body is calculated by measuring the time taken to reach the sampled developmental stage at a given temperature. To test whether regional developmental data of L. sericata is valid on a global scale, the time taken to reach different developmental stages was compared between a population from Mexico and one from Germany at two different constant temperatures.
The German population of L. sericata was collected in Frankfurt/Main, while the Mexican population originated near Oaxaca de Juarez and was transported to Germany in the larval stage. Only the F1 generation was used to avoid adaption of the Mexican flies. Eggs were immediately placed at 20 °C and 30 °C. Five times 30 freshly eclosed larvae per replicate (n = 5) were then transferred to a cup of minced meat in separate containers. The larvae were checked every 8 h for migration, pupariation or emergence of adult flies. The time at which the first individual and 50 % of the specimens per container entered each of these stages, was recorded.
Significant differences in the time of development between the two populations were observed at both temperatures. At 20 °C, the first specimens of the Mexican population reached all developmental stages a little (< 1 day to < 2 days) earlier than the German L. sericata. At 30 °C, the Mexican flies also reached the post-feeding stage slightly earlier (0.2 days). However, at 30 °C, the German flies started pupariation significantly earlier (after 5 days) than the Mexican flies (6.9 days) and the adults from Germany also emerged earlier (10.5 days compared to 13.1 days). The same pattern was observed when looking at 50 % of the total number of specimens per container. A comparison with previously published developmental studies was difficult as the experimental design varied widely between studies. However, the results were within the range of most studies. Our study has shown that age estimation can vary widely depending on the population on which the reference data used for the calculations are based. This highlights the importance of using local and population-specific developmental data for estimating the age of blow flies in case work.