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• Endothelial ageing contributes significantly to atherosclerosis.
• Non-coding RNAs are gaining interest as regulators of vascular biology.
• Several microRNAs regulate endothelial cell ageing.
• Multiple lncRNAs play a role in endothelial cell ageing.
Abstract
Atherosclerosis and numerous other cardiovascular diseases develop in an age-dependent manner. The endothelial cells that line the vessel walls play an important role in the development of atherosclerosis. Non-coding RNA like microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs are known to play an important role in endothelial function and are implicated in the disease progression. Here, we summarize several microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs that are known to have an altered expression with endothelial aging and discuss their role in endothelial cell function and senescence. These processes contribute to aging-induced atherosclerosis development and by targeting the non-coding RNAs controlling endothelial cell function and senescence, atherosclerosis can potentially be attenuated.
Mesenchymal stromal/stem cells and their derivates are the most promising cell source for cell therapies in regenerative medicine. The application of extracellular vesicles (EVs) as cell-free therapeuticals requires particles with a maximum regenerative capability to enhance tissue and organ regeneration. The cargo of mRNA and microRNA (miR) in EVs after hypoxic preconditioning has not been extensively investigated. Therefore, the aim of our study was the characterization of mRNA and the miR loading of EVs. We further investigated the effects of the isolated EVs on renal tubular epithelial cells in vitro. We found 3131 transcripts to be significantly regulated upon hypoxia. Only 15 of these were downregulated, but 3116 were up-regulated. In addition, we found 190 small RNAs, 169 of these were miRs and 21 were piwi-interacting RNAs (piR). However, only 18 of the small RNAs were significantly altered, seven were miRs and 11 were piRs. Interestingly, all seven miRs were down-regulated after hypoxic pretreatment, whereas all 11 piRs were up-regulated. Gene ontology term enrichment and miR-target enrichment analysis of the mRNAs and miR were also performed in order to study the biological background. Finally, the therapeutic effect of EVs on human renal tubular epithelial cells was shown by the increased expression of three anti-inflammatory molecules after incubation with EVs from hypoxic pretreatment. In summary, our study demonstrates the altered mRNA and miR load in EVs after hypoxic preconditioning, and their anti-inflammatory effect on epithelial cells.
Einleitung: Die Bronchiolitis obliterans ist eine seltene Lungenerkrankung unterschiedlicher Ätiologie, die mit einer chronischen Entzündung der kleinen Atemwege einhergeht. Mit der Identifizierung von Kandidaten-miRNA sollen Biomarker evaluiert werden, die in der Diagnostik der postinfektiösen Bronchiolitis obliterans (PIBO) herangezogen werden sowie in Zukunft eine mögliche Therapieoption darstellen können.
Material und Methoden: 19 Patientinnen und Patienten mit PIBO sowie 18 gesunde Kontrollen wurden in die Studie eingeschlossen. Nach Komplettsequenzierung wurden die miRNA-Profile der Patienten mit den Profilen der alters- und geschlechtsadaptierten gesunden Kontrollgruppe verglichen. Als Nebenzielgrößen wurden die Lungenfunktion und Sputum-Biomarker erfasst.
Ergebnisse: Die Patientenkohorte wies signifikant niedrigere Werte in der Lungenfunktionsdiagnostik (Patienten, Median: FVC (%) 76,3***, FEV1 (%) 59,8***, FEV1/FVC 0,68***, FEF75 (%) 25,1***, *p<0,05, **p<0,01, ***p<0,001) sowie eine signifikante Erhöhung der neutrophilen Granulozyten und der proinflammatorischen Zytokine IL-1β, IL-6 und IL-8 in der Sputumanalyse auf (Patienten, Median: Neutrophile (%) 82,5***, IL-1β (pg/ml) 1453,0**, IL-6 (pg/ml) 825,6**, IL-8 (pg/ml) 35368,0***). Die Analyse der miRNA-Expression ergab insgesamt 40 unterschiedlich regulierte miRNAs (padj ≤ 0,05). 22 miRNAs waren in der Patientenkohorte vermehrt exprimiert, 18 miRNAs waren vermindert exprimiert. Die vier miRNAs mit pbonf < 0,05 wurden in der weiteren Analyse berücksichtigt. Die miRNAs hsa-let-7b-3p und hsa-miR-146a-3p waren signifikant vermehrt exprimiert, wohingegen die miRNAs hsa-miR-1287-5p und hsa-miR-27b-3p signifikant vermindert exprimiert waren. Die identifizierten miRNAs spielen unter anderem eine Rolle im TGF-β- und Hippo-Signalweg.
Schlussfolgerung: Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass das miRNA-Expressionsmuster bei Patienten, die an postinfektiöser Bronchiolitis obliterans erkrankt sind, alteriert ist. Die identifizierten miRNAs sind relevante Biomarker und können als potentielle Ziele von miRNA-Therapeutika in Betracht gezogen werden.
MicroRNAs have been projected as promising tools for diagnostic and prognostic purposes in cancer. More recently, they have been highlighted as RNA therapeutic targets for cancer therapy. Though miRs perform a generic function of post-transcriptional gene regulation, their utility in RNA therapeutics mostly relies on their biochemical nature and their assembly with other macromolecules. Release of extracellular miRs is broadly categorized into two different compositions, namely exosomal (extracellular vesicles) and non-exosomal. This nature of miRs not only affects the uptake into target cells but also poses a challenge and opportunity for RNA therapeutics in cancer. By virtue of their ability to act as mediators of intercellular communication in the tumor microenvironment, extracellular miRs perform both, depending upon the target cell and target landscape, pro- and anti-tumor functions. Tumor-derived miRs mostly perform pro-tumor functions, whereas host cell- or stroma-derived miRs are involved in anti-tumor activities. This review deals with the recent understanding of exosomal and non-exosomal miRs in the tumor microenvironment, as a tool for pro- and anti-tumor activity and prospective exploit options for cancer therapy.
Chronische Herzinsuffizienz ist eine der führenden Todesursachen im Rahmen kardiovaskulärer Erkrankungen und ist mit einer hohen Anzahl an Komorbiditäten assoziiert. Unter anderem führt Herzinsuffizienz zu Veränderungen des Immunsystems, welche denen der Immunoseneszenz ähneln. Als einflussreiche Modulatoren ganzer molekularbiologischer Regelkreise sind microRNAs in den letzten Jahren zunehmend in den Fokus gerückt. Diese nicht-kodierenden, kurzen RNA-Einzelstränge können die Genexpression von vielen Zielgenen durch spezifisches Binden der jeweiligen mRNA Transkripte kontrollieren. Aufgrund zum Teil gewebe-, zelltyp- und prozess-spezifischer Expression können microRNAs auch als mögliche Biomarker für spezifische klinische Fragestellungen dienen.
Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde die Expression von immunmodulatorischen microRNAs im peripheren Blut (PB) von jungen und gealterten gesunden Probanden (y/h bzw. o/h) sowie Patienten mit chronischer Herzinsuffizienz (CHF) untersucht. Dabei wurde ein Bezug auf Immunoseneszenz bzw. die Auswirkung von CHF auf das Immunsystem hergestellt. Im Rahmen dessen wurden Leukozyten-, insbesondere Lymphozyten-Subpopulationen analysiert.
Hierzu wurden Probanden in die drei folgenden Gruppen eingeschlossen: Patienten mit CHF (n=18, durchschnittliches Alter 64 Jahre), alters-korrelierte gesunde Probanden (n=13, durchschnittliches Alter 64 Jahre) sowie junge gesunde Probanden (n=30, durchschnittliches Alter 25 Jahre). Neben der Erhebung der klinischen Daten wurde peripheres Blut zur Bestimmung der microRNA-Expressionslevels sowie für durchflusszytometrische Analysen der Leukozytenpopulationen gewonnen.
In den Expressionsanalysen konnte eine alters- und herzinsuffizienz-abhängige Dysregulation einzelner microRNAs beobachtet werden. Insbesondere Mitglieder der miR-181-Familie, spezifisch miR-181a und miR-181c, waren im Alter niedriger exprimiert, zudem war die Expression von miR-181c bei Vorliegen einer CHF deutlicher reduziert. Des Weiteren zeigte sich eine altersabhängige erhöhte Expression von miR-34a, wobei das Vorliegen von CHF keine Auswirkung auf die Expression zeigte. Bei den microRNAs miR-146a und miR-223 konnte keine signifikante alters- oder CHF-abhängige Regulation nachgewiesen werden. Lediglich zeigte bei der miR-155 zeigte sich eine signifikante Reduktion bei Vorliegen einer CHF im Vergleich o/h Probanden.
In Hinblick auf die Leukozytenpopulationen im peripheren Blut wiesen Patienten mit CHF höhere Zahlen an Leukozyten auf, alle miR-181 Mitglieder zeigten hierbei eine inverse Korrelation. Dagegen stellte sich in Hinblick auf die Zusammensetzung der Leukozyten-Subpopulationen eine Reduktion der Lymphozytenfraktion im Alter dar, besonders bei Patienten mit CHF. Insbesondere zeigte sich eine altersabhängige Abnahme der B-Lymphozytenpopulation, wobei auch hier das Vorliegen einer CHF diesen Effekt verstärkte. Die Expression miR-181a und miR-181c sowie miR-146a und miR-223 korrelierte positiv mit dem Anteil der B-Lymphozyten. Innerhalb der B-Zellen zeigte sich eine alters- und CHF-abhängige Reduktion der naïven B-Zellen, welche positiv mit der Expression von miR-181c, miR-146a und miR-223 korrelierte. Die beobachteten Veränderungen der B-Zell-Subpopulationen zeigten sich insbesondere bei CHF Patienten mit ischämischer Ursache im Vergleich zur dilatativen Kardiomyopathie.
Bei den untersuchten T-Lymphozyten-Subpopulationen zeigte sich eine altersabhängiger Abfall bei den zytotoxischen T-Zellen. Das Vorliegen einer CHF verstärkte diesen Effekt. Die beobachteten Veränderungen der T-Zell-Subpopulation korrelierten nicht mit der Expression der untersuchten microRNAs.
Im Gegensatz zu den lymphoiden Subpopulationen zeigte sich ein Anstieg der neutrophilen Granulozyten und der Monozyten im Alter, es stellte sich jeweils eine negative Korrelation mit der Expression von miR-181 Transkripten sowie miR-155, miR-146a und miR-223 dar.
Zusammenfassend zeigten sich signifikant erniedrigte Expressionslevels von miR-181c im Alter, was mit Immunoseneszenz-bedingten Veränderungen des peripheren Bluts einherging. Diese Veränderungen zeigten sich zusätzlich verstärkt bei Patienten mit CHF. Zukünftig könnten miR-181c Expressionslevel in peripherem Blut als Biomarker für die Immunfunktionen bei CHF Patienten dienen und in Hinblick auf eine mögliche prospektive Information evaluiert werden.
The tumor-microenvironment (TME) is an amalgamation of various factors derived from malignant cells and infiltrating host cells, including cells of the immune system. One of the important factors of the TME is microRNAs (miRs) that regulate target gene expression at a post transcriptional level. MiRs have been found to be dysregulated in tumor as well as in stromal cells and they emerged as important regulators of tumorigenesis. In fact, miRs regulate almost all hallmarks of cancer, thus making them attractive tools and targets for novel anti-tumoral treatment strategies. Tumor to stroma cell cross-propagation of miRs to regulate protumoral functions has been a salient feature of the TME. MiRs can either act as tumor suppressors or oncogenes (oncomiRs) and both miR mimics as well as miR inhibitors (antimiRs) have been used in preclinical trials to alter cancer and stromal cell phenotypes. Owing to their cascading ability to regulate upstream target genes and their chemical nature, which allows specific pharmacological targeting, miRs are attractive targets for anti-tumor therapy. In this review, we cover a recent update on our understanding of dysregulated miRs in the TME and provide an overview of how these miRs are involved in current cancer-therapeutic approaches from bench to bedside.
Pancreatic cancer is a common malignant tumor with a high incidence and mortality rate. The prognosis of patients with pancreatic cancer is considerably poor due to the lack of effective treatment in clinically. Despite numerous studies have revealed that baicalein, a natural product, is responsible for suppressing multiple cancer cells proliferation, motility and invasion. The mechanism by which baicalein restraining pancreatic cancer progression remains unclear. In this study, we firstly verified that baicalein plays a critical role in inhibiting pancreatic tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo. Then we analyzed the alteration of microRNAs (miRNAs) expression levels in Panc-1 cells incubated with DMSO, 50 and 100 μM baicalein by High-Throughput sequencing. Intriguingly, we observed that 20 and 39 miRNAs were accordingly up- and down-regulated through comparing Panc-1 cells exposed to 100 μM baicalein with the control group. Quantitative PCR analysis confirmed that miR-139-3p was the most up-regulated miRNA after baicalein treatment, while miR-196b-5p was the most down-regulated miRNA. Further studies showed that miR-139-3p induced, miR-196b-5p inhibited the apoptosis of Panc-1 cells via targeting NOB1 and ING5 respectively. In conclusion, we demonstrated that baicalein is a potent inhibitor against pancreatic cancer by modulating the expression of miR-139-3p or miR-196b-5p.
Mesial temporal lobe epilepsy (mTLE) is a common form of epilepsy and is characterized by recurrent spontaneous seizures originating from the temporal lobe. The majority of mTLE patients develop pharmacoresistance to available anti-epileptic drugs (AEDs) while exhibiting severe pathological changes that can include hippocampal atrophy, neuronal death, gliosis and chronic seizures. The molecular mechanisms leading to mTLE remain incompletely understood, but are known to include defects in post-transcriptional gene expression regulation, including in non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs). Circular RNAs (circRNAs) are a class of recently rediscovered ncRNAs with high levels of expression in the brain and proposed roles in diverse neuronal processes. To explore a potential role for circRNAs in epilepsy, RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) was performed on hippocampal tissue from a rat perforant pathway stimulation (PPS) model of TLE at different post-stimulation time points. This analysis revealed 218 differentially expressed (DE) circRNAs. Remarkably, the majority of these circRNAs were changed at the time of the occurrence of the first spontaneous seizure (DOFS). The expression pattern of two circRNAs, circ_Arhgap4 and circ_Nav3, was further validated and linked to miR-6328 and miR-10b-3p target regulation, respectively. This is the first study to examine the regulation of circRNAs during the development of epilepsy. It reveals an intriguing link between circRNA deregulation and the transition of brain networks into the state of spontaneous seizure activity. Together, our results provide a molecular framework for further understanding the role and mechanism-of-action of circRNAs in TLE.
Patients with type 2 diabetes (T2D) are threatened by excessive cardiovascular morbidity and mortality. While accelerated arterial stiffening may represent a critical mechanistic factor driving cardiovascular risk in T2D, specific therapies to contain the underlying diabetic arterial remodeling have been elusive. The present translational study investigates the role of microRNA-29b (miR-29b) as a driver and therapeutic target of diabetic aortic remodeling and stiffening. Using a murine model (db/db mice), as well as human aortic tissue samples, we find that diabetic aortic remodeling and stiffening is associated with medial fibrosis, as well as fragmentation of aortic elastic layers. miR-29b is significantly downregulated in T2D and miR-29b repression is sufficient to induce both aortic medial fibrosis and elastin breakdown through upregulation of its direct target genes COL1A1 and MMP2 thereby increasing aortic stiffness. Moreover, antioxidant treatment restores aortic miR-29b levels and counteracts diabetic aortic remodeling. Concluding, we identify miR-29b as a comprehensive—and therefore powerful—regulator of aortic remodeling and stiffening in T2D that moreover qualifies as a (redox-sensitive) target for therapeutic intervention.
MicroRNA miR-181 - a rheostat for TCR signaling in thymic selection and peripheral T-Cell function
(2020)
The selection of T cells during intra-thymic d evelopment is crucial to obtain a functional and simultaneously not self-reactive peripheral T cell repertoire. However, selection is a complex process dependent on T cell receptor (TCR) thresholds that remain incompletely understood. In peripheral T cells, activation, clonal expansion, and contraction of the active T cell pool, as well as other processes depend on TCR signal strength. Members of the microRNA (miRNA) miR-181 family have been shown to be dynamically regulated during T cell development as well as dependent on the activation stage of T cells. Indeed, it has been shown that expression of miR-181a leads to the downregulation of multiple phosphatases, implicating miR-181a as ‘‘rheostat’’ of TCR signaling. Consistently, genetic models have revealed an essential role of miR-181a/b-1 for the generation of unconventional T cells as well as a function in tuning TCR sensitivity in peripheral T cells during aging. Here, we review these broad roles of miR-181 family members in T cell function via modulating TCR signal strength.
A myriad of signaling molecules in a heuristic network of the tumor microenvironment (TME) pose a challenge and an opportunity for novel therapeutic target identification in human cancers. MicroRNAs (miRs), due to their ability to affect signaling pathways at various levels, take a prominent space in the quest of novel cancer therapeutics. The role of miRs in cancer initiation, progression, as well as in chemoresistance, is being increasingly investigated. The canonical function of miRs is to target mRNAs for post-transcriptional gene silencing, which has a great implication in first-order regulation of signaling pathways. However, several reports suggest that miRs also perform non-canonical functions, partly due to their characteristic non-coding small RNA nature. Examples emerge when they act as ligands for toll-like receptors or perform second-order functions, e.g., to regulate protein translation and interactions. This review is a compendium of recent advancements in understanding the role of miRs in cancer signaling and focuses on the role of miRs as novel regulators of the signaling pathway in the TME.
DNA methylation was shown previously to be a crucial mechanism responsible for transcriptional deregulation in the pathogenesis of classical Hodgkin lymphoma (cHL). To identify epigenetically inactivated miRNAs in cHL, we have analyzed the set of miRNAs downregulated in cHL cell lines using bisulfite pyrosequencing. We focused on miRNAs with promoter regions located within or <1000 bp from a CpG island. Most promising candidate miRNAs were further studied in primary Hodgkin and Reed-Sternberg (HRS) cells obtained by laser capture microdissection. Last, to evaluate the function of identified miRNAs, we performed a luciferase reporter assay to confirm miRNA: mRNA interactions and therefore established cHL cell lines with stable overexpression of selected miRNAs for proliferation tests. We found a significant reverse correlation between DNA methylation and expression levels of mir-339-3p, mir-148a-3p, mir-148a-5p and mir-193a-5 demonstrating epigenetic regulation of these miRNAs in cHL cell lines. Moreover, we demonstrated direct interaction between miR-148a-3p and IL15 and HOMER1 transcripts as well as between mir-148a-5p and SUB1 and SERPINH1 transcripts. Furthermore, mir-148a overexpression resulted in reduced cell proliferation in the KM-H2 cell line. In summary, we report that mir-148a is a novel tumor suppressor inactivated in cHL and that epigenetic silencing of miRNAs is a common phenomenon in cHL.
Background: Here we examined myocardial microRNA (miRNA) expression profile in a sensory neuropathy model with cardiac diastolic dysfunction and aimed to identify key mRNA molecular targets of the differentially expressed miRNAs that may contribute to cardiac dysfunction. Methods: Male Wistar rats were treated with vehicle or capsaicin for 3 days to induce systemic sensory neuropathy. Seven days later, diastolic dysfunction was detected by echocardiography, and miRNAs were isolated from the whole ventricles. Results: Out of 711 known miRNAs measured by miRNA microarray, the expression of 257 miRNAs was detected in the heart. As compared to vehicle-treated hearts, miR-344b, miR-466b, miR-98, let-7a, miR-1, miR-206, and miR-34b were downregulated, while miR-181a was upregulated as validated also by quantitative real time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). By an in silico network analysis, we identified common mRNA targets (insulin-like growth factor 1 (IGF-1), solute carrier family 2 facilitated glucose transporter member 12 (SLC2a-12), eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4e (EIF-4e), and Unc-51 like autophagy activating kinase 2 (ULK-2)) targeted by at least three altered miRNAs. Predicted upregulation of these mRNA targets were validated by qRT-PCR. Conclusion: This is the first demonstration that sensory neuropathy affects cardiac miRNA expression network targeting IGF-1, SLC2a-12, EIF-4e, and ULK-2, which may contribute to cardiac diastolic dysfunction. These results further support the need for unbiased omics approach followed by in silico prediction and validation of molecular targets to reveal novel pathomechanisms.
MicroRNAs (miRs) significantly contribute to the regulation of gene expression, by virtue of their ability to interact with a broad, yet specific set of target genes. MiRs are produced and released by almost every cell type and play an important role in horizontal gene regulation in the tumor microenvironment (TME). In the TME, both tumor and stroma cells cross-communicate via diverse factors including miRs, which are taking central stage as a therapeutic target of anti-tumor therapy. One of the immune escape strategies adopted by tumor cells is to release miRs as a Trojan horse to hijack circulating or tumor-localized monocytes/macrophages to tune them for pro-tumoral functions. On the other hand, macrophage-derived miRs exert anti-tumor functions. The transfer of miRs from host to recipient cells depends on the supramolecular structure and composition of miR carriers, which determine the distinct uptake mechanism by recipient cells. In this review, we provide a recent update on the miR-mediated crosstalk between tumor cells and macrophages and their mode of uptake in the TME.
Over the last years, many microRNAs (miRNAs) have been identified that regulate the formation of bioactive lipid mediators such as prostanoids and leukotrienes. Many of these miRNAs are involved in complex regulatory circuits necessary for the fine-tuning of biological functions including inflammatory processes or cell growth. A better understanding of these networks will contribute to the development of novel therapeutic strategies for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and cancer. In this review, we provide an overview of the current knowledge of miRNA regulation in eicosanoid pathways with special focus on novel miRNA functions and regulatory circuits of leukotriene and prostaglandin biosynthesis.
Post-transcriptional gene regulation through microRNA (miRNA) has emerged as a major control mechanism of multiple biological processes, including development and function of T cells. T cells are vital components of the immune system, with conventional T cells playing a central role in adaptive immunity and unconventional T cells having additional functions reminiscent of both innate and adaptive immunity, such as involvement in stress responses and tissue homeostasis. Unconventional T cells encompass cells expressing semi-invariant T cell receptors (TCRs), such as invariant Natural Killer T (iNKT) and Mucosal-Associated Invariant T (MAIT) cells. Additionally, some T cells with diverse TCR repertoires, including γδT cells, intraepithelial lymphocytes (IEL) and regulatory T (Treg) cells, share some functional and/or developmental features with their semi-invariant unconventional counterparts. Unconventional T cells are particularly sensitive to disruption of miRNA function, both globally and on the individual miRNA level. Here, we review the role of miRNA in the development and function of unconventional T cells from an iNKT-centric point of view. The function of single miRNAs can provide important insights into shared and individual pathways for the formation of different unconventional T cell subsets.
Acute graft-versus-host disease (GvHD) is still a major cause of treatment-related mortality after allogeneic stem cell transplantation. Allo-antigen recognition of donor T cells after transplantation account for the onset and persistence of this disease. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are molecular regulators involved in numerous processes during T-cell development, homeostasis, and activation. Thus, miRNAs also contribute to pathological T-cell function during GvHD. Given their capacity of fine-tuning T-cell function, miRNAs have emerged as promising therapeutic targets to curtail acute GvHD, but simultaneously maintain T-cell-mediated graft-versus-tumor effects. Here, we review the role of key miRNAs contributing to the pathophysiology of GvHD. We focus on those miRNAs acting in T cells and for which a role in GvHD has been established in preclinical models. Finally, we provide an outlook for clinical application of this new therapeutic target for GvHD prevention and treatment.
Since our knowledge on structure and function of messenger RNA (mRNA) has expanded from merely being an intermediate molecule between DNA and proteins to the notion that RNA is a dynamic gene regulator that can be modified and edited, RNA has become a focus of interest into developing novel therapeutic schemes. Therapeutic modulation of RNA molecules by DNA- and RNA-based therapies has broadened the scope of therapeutic targets in infectious diseases, cancer, neurodegenerative diseases and most recently in cardiovascular diseases as well. Currently, antisense oligonucleotides (ASO), small interfering RNAs (siRNAs), and microRNAs are the most widely applied therapeutic strategies to target RNA molecules and regulate gene expression and protein production. However, a number of barriers have to be overcome including instability, inadequate binding affinity and delivery to the tissues, immunogenicity, and off-target toxicity in order for these agents to evolve into efficient drugs. As cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of mortality worldwide, a large number of clinical trials are under development investigating the safety and efficacy of RNA therapeutics in clinical conditions such as familial hypercholesterolemia, diabetes mellitus, hypertriglyceridemia, cardiac amyloidosis, and atrial fibrillation. In this review, we summarize the clinical trials of RNA-targeting therapies in cardiovascular disease and critically discuss the advances, the outcomes, the limitations and the future directions of RNA therapeutics in precision transcriptomic medicine.
Bei Knochendefekten kritischer Größe gestaltet sich die selbstständige Regeneration als nahezu unmöglich, weshalb es nötig ist die Therapie zu optimieren. Die Verwendung autologer Spongiosatransplantate stellt den aktuellen Goldstandard dar, was jedoch mit einer Reihe von Komplikationen, beispielsweise Schmerzen an der Entnahmestelle oder Wundheilungsstörungen verbunden ist. Das Knochen Tissue Engineering repräsentiert eine aussichtsreiche Alternative. Die Kombination eines osteokonduktiven Gerüststoffes mit regenerativen Zellen, wie zum Beispiel mononukleäre Zellen des Knochenmarks (BMC), stellt einen vielversprechenden Ansatz dar. Die BMCs haben im Vergleich zu anderen verwendbaren Zelltypen, z.B. mesenchymale Stammzellen (MSCs) oder endothelialen Vorläuferzellen (EPCs), den entscheidenden Vorteil einer kurzen Aufbereitungszeit, wodurch die definitive Frakturversorgung beschleunigt wird.
Mittels Inhibierung von MicroRNAs (miRNAs) mit Einfluss auf das osteogene und angiogene Potenzial der BMCs soll dieses System weiter verbessert werden. MiRNAs umfassen eine Gruppe kurzer, nicht-codierender RNAs die an der Steuerung grundlegender biologischer Prozesse beteiligt sind. Im Rahmen dieser Studie sind die MIR92A sowie MIR335 von besonderem Interesse. MIR92A blockiert die Angiogenese durch Verringerung der Expression des pro-angiogenen Proteins Integrin alpha 5 (ITGA5, CD51) sowie durch die Aktivierung des Notch-Signalweges um die Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-induzierte Blutgefäßbildung zu reduzieren. MIR335 hemmt über die Verringerung der Proteinkonzentration des Runt-related transcription factor 2 (RUNX2) die Proliferation und Differenzierung von humanen mesenchymalen Stammzellen (hMSCs) zu osteogenen Zellen. Aufgrund der erläuterten Erkenntnisse sollte in dieser Arbeit überprüft werden, ob die Neutralisation von MIR92A (Vaskularisierung) und MIR335 (osteogene Differenzierung) in BMCs mittels spezifischer antiMIR zu einer weiteren Verbesserung der BMC gestützten Therapie großer Knochendefekte führt.
Im ersten Teil der Versuche wurde das Prinzip der Lipotransfektion, zur Einbringung der Antikörper gegen die miRNAs in BMCs, optimiert und die Transfektionseffizenz bestimmt. In Abhängigkeit von der Zellsorte wurden mit 30 % - 69 % ausreichend hohe Transfektionseffizenzen erzielt, um jeweils 24 h nach Transfektion einen signifikanten Rückgang der Target-miRNA-Konzentrationen zu erreichen.
Nachdem die Wirksamkeit der Transfektion nachgewiesen war, wurden im zweiten Teil der Experimente die spezifischen Effekte der antiMIR auf die Zielgene überprüft. Der Einsatz von antiMIR92A führte nach 72 h zu einer erhöhten Genexpression von ITGA5 sowie VEGFA, zwei für die Angiogenese entscheidende Proteine. Zusätzliche konnte mittels FACS-Analyse eine signifikant gesteigerte CD51-Oberflächenexpression dokumentiert werden. Bei der Verwendung von antiMIR335 konnte eine verstärkte Expression der für die osteogene Differenzierung entscheidenden Indikatoren RUNX2 und BMP2 nachgewiesen werden. Die additionale Gabe von VEGFA (MIR92A) oder BMP2 (MIR335) konnte nach 48 h einen Trend zu verstärkter ITGA5 und VEGFA, beziehungsweise RUNX2 und BMP2 Expression erkennen lassen.
Zusammenfassend hat diese Studie verdeutlicht, dass die Inhibierung der MIR92A und MIR335 eine vielversprechende Möglichkeit bietet, das BMC gestützte Knochen Tissue Engineering weiter zu optimieren.
Ischemic injuries of the cardiovascular system are still the leading cause of death worldwide. They are often accompanied by loss of cardiomyocytes (CM) and their replacement by non-functional heart tissue. Cardiac fibroblasts (CF) play a major role in the recovery after ischemic injury and in the scar formation. In the last few years researchers were able to reprogram fibroblasts into CM in vitro and in murine models of myocardial infarction using various protocols including a cocktail of microRNAs (miRs). These miRs can target hundreds of messenger RNAs and inhibit their translation into proteins, potentially regulating multiple cellular signaling pathways. Because of this, there has been a rising interest in the use of miRs for therapeutic purposes. However, as different miRs have different effects in different cells, there is the danger of causing serious side effects. These could be alleviated by enacting a cell-specific transport of miRs, for example by using aptamers. Aptamers are usually short strands of DNA or RNA, which can fold into a specific three-dimensional confirmation which allows them to bind specifically to target molecules. Aptamers are commonly selected from a large library for their ability to bind to target molecules using a procedure called SELEX. Aptamers have already been used to transport miRs into cancer cells.
In this thesis, we first established the transport of miRs into cells of the cardiovascular system using aptamers. MiR-126 is an important part of the signaling in endothelial cells (EC), protects from atherosclerosis and supports angiogenesis, which is why we chose it as a candidate to transport into the vasculature. We first tested two aptamers for their ability to internalize into EC and fibroblasts. Both the aptamer for the ubiquitously expressed transferrin receptor (TRA) and a general internalizing RNA motif, but not a control construct, could internalize efficiently into all cell types tested. We then designed three chimeras (Ch) using different strategies to connect TRA to miR-126. While all chimeras could internalize efficiently, only Ch3, which connects TRA to Pre-miR-126 using a sticky bridge structure, had functional effects in EC. Ch3 reduced the protein expression of VCAM-1 in EC and increased the VEGF induced sprouting of EC in a spheroid-sprouting assay. Treatment of breast cancer cells with Ch3 emulated the effects of treatment with classical miR-126-3p and miR-126-5p mimics. In the SK-BR3 cell line Ch3 and miR-126-3p reduce the viability of the cells while they reduce recruitment of EC by the MCF7 cell line. miR-126-5p had no apparent effect in the SK-BR3 line, but increased viability of MCF7 cells, as did Ch3. This implies that Ch3 can be processed to both functional miR-126-3p and miR-126-5p in treated cells.
We were unable to achieve a reprogramming of adult murine cardiac fibroblasts into cells resembling CM using the cocktail of 4 miRs. This indicates that the miR-mediated transdifferentiation is only possible in neonatal fibroblasts. The effects in mice after an AMI might possibly be caused by an enhanced plasticity of fibroblasts in and close to the infarcted area.
We also screened to find aptamers specifically binding to cells of the cardiovascular system. We used two oligonucleotide libraries in a cell-SELEX to select candidates which bind to CF, but not EC. We observed that only the library which contains two randomized regions of 26 bases showed an enrichment of species binding to fibroblasts. We then sequenced rounds 5-7 of the SELEX and analyzed the data bioinfomatically to select 10 candidate aptamers. All candidates showed a strong binding not only to CF, but also EC. This indicates that the selection pressure against species binding to EC was not high enough and would have to be increased to find true CF-aptamers. Four promising candidates were also analyzed for their potential to be internalized and we surprisingly found that all of them were internalized by EC and CF more efficiently than TRA. The similar behavior of the candidates implies that they possibly share a ligand, which is expressed both by EC and CF, but more prominently by the latter.
This work demonstrates the possibility of using aptamers to transport miRs into cells of the cardiovascular system. It also shows that it is possible to select aptamers for non-cancerous mammalian cells, which has not been done before. It is reasonable to assume that a refinement of the cell-SELEX will allow selection of cell-specific aptamers. Due to the failure of reprogramming of adult fibroblasts into induced cardiomyocytes we were unable to test whether a miR-mediated reprogramming might be inducible using aptamer transported-miRs. Ultimately, aptamer mediated transport of miRs is a feasible and promising therapeutic option for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases and other disorders like cancer.
Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) lacks non-invasive and easy to measure biomarkers, still largely relying on semi-quantitative tests for diagnostic and prognostic purposes. Muscle biopsies provide valuable data, but their use is limited by their invasiveness. microRNA (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs regulating gene expression that are also present in biological fluids and may serve as diseases biomarkers. Thus, we tested plasma miRNAs in the blood of 36 DM1 patients and 36 controls. First, a wide miRNA panel was profiled in a patient subset, followed by validation using all recruited subjects. We identified a signature of nine deregulated miRNAs in DM1 patients: eight miRNAs were increased (miR-133a, miR-193b, miR-191, miR-140-3p, miR-454, miR-574, miR-885-5p, miR-886-3p) and one (miR-27b) was decreased. Next, the levels of these miRNAs were used to calculate a "DM1-miRNAs score". We found that both miR-133a levels and DM1-miRNAs score discriminated DM1 from controls significantly and Receiver-Operator Characteristic curves displayed an area under the curve of 0.94 and 0.97, respectively. Interestingly, both miR-133a levels and DM1-miRNAs score displayed an inverse correlation with skeletal muscle strength and displayed higher values in more compromised patients. In conclusion, we identified a characteristic plasma miRNA signature of DM1. Although preliminary, this study indicates miRNAs as potential DM1 humoral biomarkers.
Aging is a complex process that is linked to an increased incidence of major diseases such as cardiovascular and neurodegenerative disease, but also cancer and immune disorders. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small non-coding RNAs, which post-transcriptionally control gene expression by inhibiting translation or inducing degradation of targeted mRNAs. MiRNAs target up to hundreds of mRNAs, thereby modulating gene expression patterns. Many miRNAs appear to be dysregulated during cellular senescence, aging and disease. However, only few miRNAs have been so far linked to age-related changes in cellular and organ functions. The present article will discuss these findings, specifically focusing on the cardiovascular and neurological systems.
Almost two decades ago, microRNAs were discovered as novel posttranscriptional regulators of gene expression. Since then, research efforts have uncovered their involvement in the control of various cellular processes including migration, proliferation and cell survival. Even more complex events, such as the formation of new blood vessels or organ development, have been shown to be tightly regulated and orchestrated by microRNAs. Due to their crucial regulatory role in tissue homeostasis in vertebrates, it does not come as a big surprise that dysregulated microRNA ex-pression is associated with pathology of diverse diseases. In this regard, the miR-17-92 cluster is a prime example since it has become famous for its amplified expression in tumours and its on-cogenic potential. Our lab demonstrated the expression of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster, namely miR-17, -18a, -19a, -20a, -19b and -92a, in endothelial cells and provided evidence for the anti-angiogenic activity of miR-92a in ECs as well as its important regulatory role in tissue re-covery after ischemia. In this work we addressed the function of the remaining members of the miR-17-92 cluster, i.e. miR-17, miR-18a, miR-19a and miR-20a, in endothelial cells and angiogenesis. Surprisingly, the individual members all displayed anti-angiogenic properties in endothelial cells in vitro, although overexpression of the whole cluster in transformed colonocytes was shown to promote tumour angiogenesis in a mouse model. In this context, we provide evidence that the individual miRs differentially affect the paracrine angiogenic activity of endothelial and tumour cells. Moreover, Antagomir-mediated inhibition of miR-17/20 in a mouse tumour model did not affect tumour angi-ogenesis, although miR-17/20 inhibition profoundly increased vascularization of Matrigel plugs. Thus, our research efforts suggest a differential involvement of the members of the miR-17-92 cluster in physiological and tumour angiogenesis. Additionally, we identified Janus kinase (JAK) 1 as a novel miR-17 target in endothelial cells and demonstrated the involvement of JAK1 in angio-genesis and in the phosphorylation of STAT3 in response to different cytokines in vitro. Overall, inhibition of specific members of the miR-17-92 cluster might represent an attractive therapeutic strategy to enhance angiogenesis in ischemic diseases. In the second part of the present work we investigated the therapeutic value of Antagomir-mediated microRNA inhibition in animal models of pulmonary arterial hypertension. Collectively, inhibition of miR-17 by the respective Antagomir revealed a significant improvement of pulmonary hemodynamics and cardiac function in both the chronic hypoxia mouse model and the mono-crotaline-induced lung injury rat model. Histomorphometric analysis of the lungs of the pulmonary hypertensive mice and rats uncovered a significant reduction of disease associated musculariza-tion of pulmonary arteries in Antagomir-17 treated animals compared to the control animals indicating interference with smooth muscle cell proliferation or survival. Probing of lung tissue of the pulmonary hypertensive rats for selected miR-17 targets uncovered a profound increase in the expression of the cyclin dependent kinase inhibitor p21 in the Antagomir-17 treated rats suggest-ing that inhibition of miR-17 impairs proliferation by impeding cell cycle progression. Analysis of miR-17 function in human smooth muscle cells in vitro corroborated the results from the animal experiments by demonstrating pro-proliferative activity of miR-17 and decreased levels of p21 in these cells. Collectively, our results indicate that Antagomir-17 improves pulmonary hemodyna-mics and cardiac function by interfering with vascular remodelling within the lung. Hence, inhibi-tion of miR-17 might be of therapeutic value to ameliorate the disease pattern in pulmonary arte-rial hypertension. In summary, the present work provides insights into the regulatory functions of members of the miR-17-92 cluster, especially miR-17, in blood vessels and suggests that specific inhibition of members of the miR-17-92 cluster might be a novel option to treat vascular diseases.
Dicer and Drosha are the major enzymes involved in microRNA processing. Using siRNA targeting Dicer and Drosha, thereby downregulating a substantial number of microRNAs in EC, we demonstrate a crucial role of both enzymes in angiogenic processes. Interestingly, Dicer inhibition exerts more profound effects on processes like migration and viability of EC in comparison to Drosha inhibition. Moreover, Dicer effects in vivo angiogenesis, a process which is unaffected by Drosha. This discrepancy might be partially due to the involvement of Dicer in other cellular processes like heterochromatin formation and to the fact that Dicer and Drosha target mainly different subsets of microRNAs. In addition, we identified miR-92a as a novel endogenous repressor of the angiogenic program in EC, which impairs their angiogenic functions in vitro and in vivo. Consistent with these data, blocking miR-92a by systemic infusion of antagomirs enhances neovascularization and functional recovery after ischemia in vivo. At first sight, the anti-angiogenic function of miR-92a in EC appears to contradict the previously identified anti-apoptotic and pro-angiogenic activities of the miR-17~92 cluster in tumor cells. However, this apparent discrepancy might be well rationalized by a predominant function of miR-18a and miR-19a in tumor cells, which are responsible for the tumorigenic and non-cell autonomous pro-angiogenic functions of the miR-17~92 cluster. Instead, miR-92a expression is specifically upregulated in ischemic tissues and appears to cell-autonomously repress the angiogenic potential of EC. Among the various targets and verified regulated genes identified by microarray, we confirmed the downregulation of Integrin a5 in vitro and in vivo. The relevance of this miR-92a target is evidenced by severe vascular defects in the absence of Integrin a5. In addition, endothelial miR-92a interferes with the expression pattern of genes controlling key EC functions at various levels, some of which, e.g. eNOS, might be secondarily affected by directly targeted genes. Obviously, our data do not formally exclude effects of antagomir-92a on perivascular and other cell types, but surely include effects on EC. Regardless of this, the capacity of miR-92a to target various downstream effectors might be an advantage of miRNA-based therapeutic strategies and may overcome the limited therapeutic capacity of single growth factor or single gene therapies in ischemic diseases, since the highly organized process of vessel growth, maturation and functional maintenance is well known to require the fine-tuned regulation of a set of genes.