Refine
Document Type
- Part of a Book (59) (remove)
Has Fulltext
- yes (59)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (59) (remove)
Keywords
- Digitalisierung (2)
- Herstellung (2)
- Kritik (2)
- Technologie (2)
Institute
- Sprach- und Kulturwissenschaften (59) (remove)
Micromorphology is a suitable method to study the contents and stratigraphic relationships of pit fills. Within the ramparts of Corneşti-Iarcuri, fill layers of a pit were sampled. Th e pit fill was macroscopically divided into primary and secondary fill due to striking differences. These differences could be verified and concretized micromorphologically.
The LOEWE-project “Prehistoric Conflict Research” is determined in several new ways to interpret the archaeological evidence of Bronze Age fortifications. One way is the comparison with other non-modern cultures of conflict and their use of fortifications. In this paper, the conquest of Aquitaine by the Carolingian rulers of the Franks (760–769 CE) is taken as such an example. By analysing the (near-)contemporary historiographical record, the military role of fortifications in post-Roman warfare is discussed. It turns out that in the historiographers’ view, fortified settlements were focal points of military activity, and that combat occurred around them far more often than in the open field. Nonetheless, warfare in the surroundings of fortifications signified more than only sieges: the historiographical sources show a great variety of events connected to them as part of the war. Furthermore, a semantic inquiry of the material shows a special notion in texts concerning the “capture” of fortified settlements. This could be achieved not only by force, but also with diplomatic means, and the historiographers valued success higher than bravery. Moreover, the amount of violence seems to have been limited, as is indicated by the small number of destroyed fortifications and by the debates ensuing about one particular massacre (Clermont-Ferrand in 761 CE), which obviously was at odds with contemporary ideas about appropriate warfare. These results imply that archaeological research on conflict would benefit greatly from broadening its scope beyond actual battle events, in order to disclose the conflicts of Bronze Age Europe in all their complexity.
The current paper summarizes the development of Bronze Age Aegean fortifications with a special focus on the Aegean Early and Middle Bronze Age. In order to get a better understanding of Aegean fortifications for each period, their numbers are set into relation with the number of known sites and other features. The impressive multi-phased fortifications of sites such as Troy or Kolonna on the island of Aegina will be used as case studies to explain the development of Early to Middle Bronze Age sites in the central Aegean. The final part of the paper gives a preview on the development of Late Bronze Age (Mycenaean palatial and postpalatial) fortifications.
The large earth fortification of Sântana is located in the area of the Lower Mureş Basin, ca. 20 km northeast of the city of Arad. The attribution of this fortification to the late period of the Bronze Age was confirmed through the 1963 archaeological excavations coordinated by M. Rusu, E. Dörner and I. Ordentlich. In the spring of 2009, a gas pipeline disturbed the area of the third precinct in Sântana. Rescue excavations started in the autumn of 2009 and focused on the same area as where the 1963 research had been performed. The results of our excavations in Sântana were published on several occasions, so here we shall just present several data on the fortification and on the context in which the clay sling projectiles were discovered.
Sântana-Cetatea Veche. A late bronze age mega-fort in the Lower Mureș Basin in Southwestern Romania
(2019)
Our contribution provides an overview of the archaeological investigations carried out, including those in 2018, at the large fortification of Sântana–Cetatea Veche, north of Arad in Romania. The new research was undertaken within the framework of the LOEWE project “Prehistoric Conflict Research – Bronze Age Hillforts between Taunus and Carpathian Mountains”. In accordance with the main scientific guidelines of the project, the research efforts encompassed archaeological fieldwork, magnetometric surveys of the entire area of the fortification, as well as a LiDAR scan covering an area of nearly 850 ha. As a result of the excavation undertaken in the eastern part of the defences pertaining to enclosure III, new absolute chronological data were obtained, which in corroboration with the older information offer a clear dating of the fortification system to the 15th to 13th centuries BC.
Attributing the large-scale, but tactically suspect, south Levantine Bronze Age fortification systems a ‘social’ role has become an archaeological commonplace, yet it begs the crucial question of form – if a polity, a social class, or a collective wish to advertise their cohesion, power, or wealth, why choose fortifications, rather than burial monuments, temples or palaces? In other words, what social end was served by conspicuous, inefficient, military consumption? This paper aims to offer a preliminary answer to this question through three interlocking arguments: The first, that societies like that of the Levantine Bronze Age are characterized by the existence of cooperative labor obligations; the second, that this collective labor investment was, in the ancient Levant, primarily dedicated to defense; the third, that tactically imperfect fortifications were nonetheless strategically successful as defensive installations, even while promoting social cohesion and projecting elite power.
This paper provides a glimpse into the palaeoecological conditions at the prehistoric settlement Corneşti-Iarcuri in the southwest Romanian Banat, which is known as the largest Bronze Age fortification in Europe. Preservation of pollen is generally poor in the region, where extensive marshlands have been drained and converted into arable lands since the 18th century. Remarkably, some fossil topsoils buried under thick colluvial layers within the fortification proved to contain pollen. Together with the sediments themselves, which serve as direct evidence for anthropogenically infl uenced geomorphodynamics and could partially be put into chronological context by radiocarbon dating, the on-site palynological data offer a unique opportunity to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental setting at Corneşti. Results reveal that during the Chalcolithic period, a partially cleared open woodland with Tilia, Quercus and Corylus prevailed. Soil erosion began in some central parts of the settlement site, resulting in the accumulation of up to 90 cm of colluvium in the main valley. Until the Early Iron Age, regional tree percentages dropped from around 38 to 22 %, while anthropogenic indicators (Cerealia, Plantago lanceolata, Polygonum aviculare) increased from 11 to 16 %. Meanwhile, between 50 to 170 cm of colluvium were deposited at the investigated floodplain sites.
During the advanced Early Bronze Age two innovative weapons – the sword and the bronze lancehead – became widespread or were regionally produced in vast parts of Europe. The rapid dispersion of these new weapons implies the corresponding necessity for defence measures and the supply of raw materials, as well as the presence of metalworkers, who possessed technical know-how. The ability to handle a sword or a lance required in turn specific training, which was not limited to only a few persons. The appearance of these weapons occurred around the same time as the construction of fortified settlements in elevated locations in Central Europe.
The large hillfort of Teleac, commanding the Mureş River valley, the principal East-West connecting axis in the Carpathian Basin, was likely built in the second half of the 11th century BC and occupied until the end of the 10th or the early 9th century BC. The fortification wall was destroyed around 920 BC, according to recent investigations. More than 40 iron objects were discovered in the fortified complex. These iron finds viewed together with numerous other iron finds from other sites signify that Transylvania was an early centre of the implementation of iron and presumably iron production. Thereby, the use of iron for producing weapons probably stood in the foreground. This is indicated by corresponding grave finds in Greece that contain a sword as offering, but also iron swords found in Slovenia and Romania.
Im Rahmen des hessischen LOEWE-Schwerpunkts „Prähistorische Konfliktforschung – Bronzezeitliche Burgen zwischen Taunus und Karpaten“ werden die Burgen der Bronzezeit sowohl interdisziplinär auf verschiedene Kriterien hin untersucht und das Phänomen der bronzezeitlichen Burg durch theoretische Grundlagen zu Herrschaft und Krieg in der Bronzezeit erarbeitet, als auch exemplarisch archäologische Ausgrabungen an Befestigungen in Hessen und in Rumänien durchgeführt. Befestigte Höhensiedlungen oder Burgen stellten zwischen Karpaten und den Mittelgebirgen ein neues Phänomen dar, das im Zusammenhang mit den gesellschaftlichen Entwicklungen stand. Sie boten Schutz vor Überfällen bewaffneter Gruppen, zugleich konnten Ressourcen und Verkehrswege kontrolliert werden. Mit dem Aufkommen neuer Waffen, wie der Lanze oder den Hieb- und Stichschwertern, sowie der Errichtung von wehrhaften Höhensiedlungen wird in der Bronzezeit Europas im 2. Jt. v. Chr. eine Ausweitung von Konflikten, Gewalt und Krieg greifbar. Die bronzezeitlichen Burgen können bei allen differenzierten Funktionen insgesamt als Ausdruck eines gewachsenen fortifikatorischen Bedürfnisses vor dem Hintergrund sich wandelnder Kampftechniken und eines zunehmenden Konfliktpotentials gedeutet werden.
Foreword
(2019)
Die größte bronzezeitliche Befestigung Europas in Corneşti-Iarcuri wird seit 2007 durch das Muzeul Naţional al Banatului, die Johann Wolfgang Goethe-Universität Frankfurt/Main, das Museum für Vor- und Frühgeschichte der Staatlichen Museen zu Berlin und bis 2015 die University of Exeter wieder intensiv erforscht. Durch Grabungsschnitte an den Holz-Kasten-Erde-Mauern und in der Siedlungsfläche, durch großflächige magnetische Messungen und systematischen Oberflächenbegehungen sowie paläobotanische Untersuchungen ergibt sich zwischenzeitlich eine recht detaillierte „Biographie“ Corneşti-Iarcuris. Im Rahmen von Rettungsgrabungen beim nahen Autobahnbau und anderen Grabungsprojekten in Rumänien und Ungarn zeigt sich, dass Corneşti-Iarcuri zwar durch seine Größe und Komplexität heraussticht, aber in dieser Landschaft nicht alleine steht. Zahlreiche kleinere unbefestigte (temporäre?) Siedlungen finden sich im Umfeld, ebenso bis zu 400 ha große befestigte Anlagen. Es zeichnet sich für die späte Bronzezeit im Banat zunehmend ein enges Netz aus riesigen und befestigten Zentren, von denen Corneşti-Iarcuri mit über 1760 ha das mit Abstand größte ist, und kleinen Dörfern, Weilern oder Gehöften ab. Corneşti-Iarcuri als möglicher primus inter pares kann nur im Vergleich und Zusammenhang mit seinem Hinterland verstanden werden.
Until now 33 hilltop settlements that might represent Bronze Age hillforts have been registered in South Bohemia. However, only four sites have been distinguished and designated with certainty as Bronze Age fortifications through modern archaeological excavations. As for the other sites, the probability is smaller. The main chronological horizons of the preference for hillforts are the turn of the Early to the Middle Bronze Age (Br A2/B1–B1; c. 1800–1500 BC) and the turn of the Late and Final Bronze Age (Ha A2–B1 and Ha B; c. 1050–800 BC). Enclosed areas of rather small dimensions existed throughout the Bronze Age. There are several Bronze Age hillforts, about which we have gained a fairly clear idea about the construction of their fortifications.
In the archaeology of Scandinavian Bronze Age rock art, there is a long-standing debate over the function and role of the engraved weapons and warriors. The question can be boiled down to: Are the depicted warriors actual fighters, or are they showmen merely portraying an identity to gain status and power? One of the proposals was that spears are active because they occur in killing scenes and swords are passive because they are mostly depicted sheathed. Discussing recent rock art research on the transformation of petroglyphs, their narrative structure as well as new discoveries of weapon depictions, and confronting this with results from use wear analyses on similar weaponry, this paper sets out to argue that the answers to this problem may not be as straight forward as previously proposed. Instead it is proposed that while there is a concern with showmanship relating to a warrior identity in Scandinavian rock art, it is based on real combat, fighting, and killing. Rock art was used to enhance the stature of warriors and to make narratives more exciting that involve warriors.
The hillfort settlement of Monkodonja, located in the vicinity of the town Rovinj, is representative of the Bronze Age Castellieri culture in Istria. Twelve years of excavations that lasted one month each year revealed a proto-urban settlement with extensive fortification system, and a tripartite division of its interior that could well reflect the hierarchical social structure of its inhabitants. Remarkably, a change in the fortification concept during the time of the settlement’s existence could also be observed. With regard to bronze objects and ceramic finds the settlement is dated generally between the developed Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, or in Br A2 and Br B1 periods according to the chronology of Paul Reinecke. Moreover, about 40 radiocarbon dates from the Monkodonja settlement have also been analysed. The foundation of the settlement is dated to around 1800 cal BC. The second extensive building phase, including the rebuilding of the fortification system according to new defensive concepts, is dated approximately to 1600 cal BC, while the destruction of the settlement occurred around 1500 cal BC or in the middle of the 15th century BC at the latest.
The dynamics of development of Bronze Age fortified settlements in the territory of present-day Poland reflects a general trend visible in other regions of Europe. The first period when relatively few defensive settlements were built was the first half of the 2nd millennium BC. However, intensification of the discussed phenomenon can only be noticed with the development of the Lusatian culture. The older development stage of fortified settlements in Poland is characterised by a significantly lower number of sources. The sites identified until now form a small group of settlements, clearly connected with two cultural circles. The four settlements which have been discovered in Greater Poland and Silesia so far should be linked with local groups of Únětice culture. In south-eastern Poland, in the Polish part of the Western Carpathians, there are three known sites, which are the result of northern expansion of Otomani-Füzesabony culture settlements, as well as the development of local communities of Mierzanowice culture. The text aims at detailed description of archaeological sources concerning particular features and aspects of functioning of fortified settlements. Moreover the collected information will serve to attempt to locate the discussed settlements in wider contexts regarding the roles which are most frequently assigned to the archaeological sites of this kind.
In Böhmen kommen Burgwälle fast während der ganzen Bronzezeit vor (Bz A2-Ha B3). Ihre Anzahl kulminiert in Perioden, die ausgeprägte Kulturveränderungen begleiten, also am Übergang von der älteren zur mittleren Bronzezeit (Bz A2/Bz B1) und auch in den Umbruchsphasen der Urnenfelderzeit (Bz C2/Bz D, Ha B1 und Ha B3). Ihre Lage in der Landschaft ist variabel: Burgwälle sind Teil eines zugehörigen Siedlungsverbandes, sie liegen an Grenzen von Siedlungskammern und auch in strategisch bedeutenden Lagen ohne direkte Verbindung zu den zeitgleichen Siedlungen in der Umgebung. Diese Variabilität weist eine chronologisch-geographische Abhängigkeit auf und deutet auf unterschiedliche Funktionen der Burgwälle in den einzelnen Kulturen der Bronzezeit hin. Variabel ist auch ihre Gestaltung: Während der älteren Bronzezeit war ihre Konstruktion durch südöstliche Einflüsse inspiriert, in der mittleren Bronzezeit begegnen wir auch befestigten Siedlungen mit modifizierter primärer Funktion, in der Urnenfelderzeit ist die morphologische Variabilität der Burgwälle am ausgeprägtesten. Am Ende der Bronzezeit gibt es Burgwälle, deren Konstruktion schon die Gestalt der mächtigen hallstattzeitlichen Herrensitze hervorruft. In Böhmen kennen wir aktuell fast zweihundert Burgwälle aus der Bronzezeit. Ihre tiefergehende Auswertung ist allerdings schwierig, weil die zugänglichen Daten nur von Surveys oder kleinen Sondierungen stammen.
Das Anliegen des Beitrages ist es, auf wissenschaftliche Metanarrative als vernachlässigten Faktor bei der Interpretation archäologischer Funde und Befunde im Allgemeinen und bronzezeitlicher im Besonderen hinzuweisen. Diese Narrative zeichnen kohärente Bilder von Epochen, in welche neue Evidenzen eingepasst werden, denen so kaum die Möglichkeit eingeräumt wird, die voreingerichteten, in sich plausiblen und suggestiven Deutungsmuster und Deutungsroutinen in Frage zu stellen. Kontrastierend diskutiert werden die dominanten Metanarrative bezüglich des Neolithikums und der Bronzezeit: Während Ersteres das einer friedlicher Zyklizität beschreibt, ist Letzteres eines der Agonalität und des Fortschritts, dessen Wirkmächtigkeit und Hermetik anhand zweier populärwissenschaftlicher Darstellungen beispielhaft aufgezeigt wird.
Among many prehistoric hillforts of the Western Carpathians the one located at Maszkowice village displays unique traits. The site was excavated in 1960s and 1970s, but it was not until 2015 that the new field project revealed remains of massive stone fortifications. The wall of the Zyndram’s Hill is dated to the Early Bronze Age (18th century BC), being one of the earliest examples of defensive stone architecture in Europe outside Mediterranean. In our paper we shall discuss the development of the defensive system with its geographical and settlement context. Considering the results of fieldwork and other applied methods we can assume, that the enclosed settlement in Maszkowice functioned as an isolated point located in scarcely populated area. Therefore, we need to stress the landscape and geological circumstances which played a significant role in inner layout organization, social perception and the development of settlement and its fortifications. The stone wall was erected already at the beginning of the site’s occupation. The defensive system existed then in its most elaborated form (with at least two gates leading into the village), while later during several dozen years the fortifications slowly but constantly deteriorated. Finally, in conclusion we shall consider the stone wall of Zyndram’s Hill not as a product of local adaptation, but as a result of a prepared execution of a project.
Der Beitrag beschäftigt sich mit der historischen Überlieferung zu Burgen und anderen Befestigungen zwischen ca. 750 und 900 u. Z. Anhand von vier Beispielen aus unterschiedlichen Quellengattungen wird gezeigt, dass Befestigungen ein zentraler Bestandteil der karolingischen Welt waren. Die Bezeichnungen für Befestigungen umfassen ein großes terminologisches Spektrum, das sich mit den Begriffen deckt, die auch für städtische Siedlungen verwendet wurden (urbs, civitas, castellum, oppidum). Dies zeigt, dass Befestigungen und städtische Siedlungsformen zeitgenössisch nicht konsequent unterschieden wurden. Sie müssen daher zusammen betrachtet werden. Im zweiten Teil des Beitrags geht es um die Träger von Befestigungen, zunächst um die fränkischen Könige, die man in der Forschung zumeist für die alleinigen Träger des Burgenbaus hält. Aber auch andere Träger waren bedeutend: Bischöfe übernahmen die Verantwortung für die Befestigungen ihrer Städte, wie an den Beispielen Worms und Rom gezeigt wird, und auch Laien, wie etwa die bayerische Familie der „Waltriche“ und der Franke Iring, verfügten über Burgen. Unterhalten und erbaut wurden Burgen in fränkischer Zeit mithilfe von Dienstverpflichtungen, die für alle Freien galten, aber auch im Rahmen von Grundherrschaften.