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Ubiquitin ligases and beyond
(2012)
First paragraph (this article has no abstract): In a review published in 2004 [1] and that still repays reading today, Cecile Pickart traced the evolution of research on ubiquitination from its origins in the proteasomal degradation of proteins through the revelation that it has a central role in cell cycle regulation and the recognition of regulatory roles for ubiquitin in intracellular membrane transport, cell signalling, transcription, translation, and DNA repair.
In dieser Arbeit wurden Methoden entwickelt, mit denen das Auflösungsverhalten schwer wasserlöslicher schwacher Säuren verbessert werden kann. Als Modellwirkstoffe wurden drei Vertreter der Sulfonylharnstoff-Gruppe (Glibenclamid, Glipizid und Glimepirid) gewählt. Diese Wirkstoffe, werden zur oralen Standardtherapie des Typ 2 Diabetes eingesetzt. Die Ergebnisse aus den Löslichkeits- und Freisetzungsuntersuchungen der reinen Arzneistoffe bildeten in dieser Arbeit den Ausgangspunkt der Entwicklungsarbeit. Um den Einfluss der galenischen Methoden auf das Freisetzungsverhalten der entwickelten Formulierungen besser zu beurteilen, wurden ebenfalls entsprechende Handelspräparate (Euglucon N 3,5 mg, Luditec 5 mg und Amaryl 4 mg) untersucht. Zunächst wurden mit Glibenclamid und dem natürlichen ?-CD sowie verschieden Cyclodextrin-Derivaten (M-?-CD und HP-?-CD) binäre Komplexe im molaren Verhältnis von 1:2 (Glibenclamid:CD) hergestellt und charakterisiert. Anschließend wurden feste Lösungen aus Glibenclamid und Kollicoat(r) IR bzw. PVP K30 entwickelt. Bei den nachfolgenden Freisetzungsuntersuchungen zeichnete sich im Falle der binären Cyclodextrin-Komplexe ab, dass der Glibenclamid-HP-?-CD-Komplex das beste Freisetzungsverhalten von Glibenclamid in den untersuchten Medien erreichte. Bei den festen Lösungen von Glibenclamid gab es zwischen den beiden untersuchten Polymeren keine signifikanten Unterschiede im Ausmaß der Glibenclamidfreisetzung. Im nächsten Schritt wurden ternäre Komplexe (Glibenclamid-HP-?-CD-Polymer) entwickelt, eine Kombination aus binären CD- Komplexen und festen Lösungen. Als dritte Komponente wurden Kollicoat(r) IR, PVP K30 und PEG 6000 in unterschiedlichen Zusätzen, 5, 10 und 20% bezogen auf den zugrunde liegenden binären Glibenclamid-HP-?-CD-Komplex eingearbeitet. Die Charakterisierung der verschiedenen ternären Komplexe ergab, dass das beste Freisetzungsverhalten bei den Komplexen, welche einen 10%igen Kollicoat(r) IR- bzw. 20%igen PVP K30-Zusatz enthielten, generiert werden konnte. Bei den drei verwendeten Methoden (binäre-, ternäre Komplexe und feste Lösungen) erhielt man während der Freisetzungsuntersuchungen in den Medien mit einem pH-Wert unterhalb des pKs-Wertes von Glibenclamid (5,4) eine übersättigte Wirkstofflösung, was zum Teil innerhalb kürzester Zeit zum Präzipitieren des Wirkstoffes führte. Initiale DSC-Untersuchungen hatten gezeigt, dass Glibenclamid in den beschriebenen Präformulierungen in amorpher Form vorlag, was der Grund für die rasche Freisetzung war. Anschließend wurde versucht, das Präzipitieren zu verlangsamen und im besten Fall zu verhindern. Hierfür wurde HPMC in verschiedenen Formen verwendet. Das einfache Hinzumischen von HPMC in eine Gelatine-Kapsel zu der Glibenclamid-Formulierung führte aufgrund von Agglomeratbildungen zu einer deutlichen Verzögerung der Wirkstofffreisetzung. Pankreatin als Zusatz zum Freisetzungsmedium konnte die Bildung eines Agglomerates nicht verhindern, was darauf schließen ließ, dass dieses nicht durch sogenanntes "Cross-linking" der Gelatine entstanden war. In einem nächsten Schritt wurden HPMC-Kapseln eingesetzt. Die Glibenclamidfreisetzung konnte durch einfaches Austauschen der Gelatine-Kapseln gegen Vcaps(r) Plus-Kapseln in allen untersuchten Medien deutlich gesteigert werden, was auf die durch die Anwesenheit von HPMC verzögerte Präzipitation des Wirkstoffes im Freisetzungsmedium zurückzuführen war. Im nächsten Schritt wurde, die Formulierungsmethode von Glibenclamid, auf Glipizid übertragen. Es wurde analog zu Glibenclamid ein binärer Glipizid-HP-?-CD-Komplex im molaren Verhältnis von 1:2 (Glipizid:HP-?-CD) hergestellt. Dieser Komplex führte zu einer deutlichen Verbesserung des Auflösungsverhaltens von Glipizid, was zu einer annähernd 100%igen Wirkstofffreisetzung in allen untersuchten Medien führte. Weiterhin wurden die mit Glibenclamid entwickelten Methoden auch auf Glimepirid übertragen. Die Formulierung von Glimepirid zu einem binären Glimepirid-HP-?-CD-Komplex führte zu einer höheren Wirkstofffreisetzung, verglichen mit der kristallinen Reinsubstanz und des Handelspräparates. Durch die Verarbeitung von Glimepirid in ternären Komplexen erhöhte sich das Ausmaß der Wirkstofffreisetzung deutlich. Mit Kollicoat(r) IR konnte eine Wirkstofffreisetzung von ca. 60% der Dosis und mit PVP K30 als dritter Komponente sogar ca. 85% Wirkstofffreisetzung in Blank FeSSIF erzielt werden. Das Präzipitieren des Wirkstoffes nach initialer Wirkstofffreisetzung in Blank FeSSIF konnte durch den Einsatz von Vcaps(r) Plus-Kapseln deutlich reduziert werden. Stabilitätsuntersuchungen, welche mit den in dieser Arbeit verwendeten Präformulierungen durchgeführt wurden zeigten, dass der jeweilige Wirkstoff auch nach einem Jahr der Lagerung bei Raumtemperatur und < 30% rel. Luftfeuchte, in amorpher Form in den entsprechenden Präformulierungen vorlag. All diese Untersuchungen zeigten eindrucksvoll, dass sich Cyclodextrin-Derivate in Kombination mit hydrophilen Polymeren, dazu eigneten, die Verfügbarkeit schwer löslicher Wirkstoffe im Dünndarm für deren Resorption zu verbessern. Es wurde gezeigt, dass die Herstellungsmethodik der Cyclodextrin-Komplexe einen wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Wirkstofffreisetzung hatte.
Die Translokation von gelösten Stoffen über zelluläre Membranen ist ein essentieller biologischer Prozess, der durch eine Vielfalt an integralen Membranproteinen vermittelt wird. Diese sind in den selektiven Austausch verschiedenster Stoffe bzw. Teilchen involviert und ermöglichen somit die Kommunikation zwischen den einzelnen Zellkompartimenten untereinander bzw. mit der extrazellulären Umgebung. Eine der größten Familien paraloger Proteine, die den vektoriellen Transport von Substanzen über Zellmembranen katalysieren, stellen die ATP‐binding cassette (ABC)‐Transporter dar. Mitglieder dieser Proteinfamilie sind in allen bisher untersuchten Organismen von Prokaryoten bis hin zu höheren Eukaryoten vertreten und übernehmen essentielle Funktionen in einer Vielzahl von zellulären Abläufen. ABC‐Transporter zeichnen sich durch eine breite Substratdiversität aus, d.h. sie energetisieren unter ATP‐Verbrauch die Translokation zahlreicher, strukturell und chemisch unterschiedlicher Substanzen wie Zucker, Lipide, Ionen, Aminosäuren, Proteine oder auch zelltoxische Stoffe. In Bakterien können sie sowohl als Importproteine fungieren, welche hauptsächlich die Aufnahme von Nährstoffen vermitteln, als auch als Exportproteine, deren Hauptaufgabe es ist, zelltoxische Substanzen aus der Zelle heraus zu schleusen. Eukaryotische ABC‐Transporter sind sowohl in der Plasmamembran als auch in den intrazellulären Membranen zu finden – beispielsweise in denen des Endoplasmatischen Retikulums, des Golgi Apparats, der Lysosomen, der Peroxisomen und der Mitochondrien. Sie fungieren als Exportproteine und sind z.B. an der Ionen‐Homöostase, der Antigenprozessierung, der Insulinfreisetzung oder am Cholesterol‐ und Lipidtransport beteiligt. ...
Die Synthese des Coenzymmodells Flavin-benzimidazol-dinucleotid * gelang durch Kondensation von Benzimidazolribotid-imidazolid 1 oder Benzimidazolribotid-guanidiniumamidat 2 mit Flavinmononucleotid. Das Coenzymmodell war enzymatisch nicht aktiv und bildete keinen Enzym-Coenzym-Komplex. Im Absorptionsspektrum konnte eine Extinktionszunahme nach der Spaltung der Pyrophosphatbrücke nur im Bereich von 260 mμ beobachtet werden. Das Molekül liegt daher vermutlich in einer gefalteten Form vor. Ein Komplex zwischen Flavin- und Benzimidazolteil konnte nicht nachgewiesen werden. Eine Fluoreszenzunterdrückung, die im FAD durch die Komplexbildung zwischen Flavin- und Adeninteil bedingt wird, wurde im FBD-Coenzymmodell nicht beobachtet.
From a global viewpoint, a lot of time is spent within the indoor air compartment of vehicles. A German study on mobility has revealed that, on average, people spend 45 minutes per day inside vehicles. In recent years the number of cars has increased to around 43 million vehicles in private households. This means that more than one car can be used in every household. The ratio has been growing, especially in eastern Germany and rural areas. "Overall and especially outside the cities, the car remains by far number one mode of transport, especially in terms of mileage". Therefore, numerous international studies have addressed different aspects of indoor air hygiene, in the past years. In this paper, meaningful original studies on car indoor air pollution, related to VOCs, COx, PMs, microbials, BFRs, OPFRs, cigarettes, electronic smoking devices, high molecular weight plasticizer, and NOx are summarized in the form of a review. This present review aimed to summarize recently published studies in this important field of environmental medicine and points to the need for further studies with special recommendations for optimizing the interior air hygiene.
Secondary multidrug (Mdr) transporters utilize ion concentration gradients to actively remove antibiotics and other toxic compounds from cells. The model Mdr transporter MdfA from Escherichia coli exchanges dissimilar drugs for protons. The transporter should open at the cytoplasmic side to enable access of drugs into the Mdr recognition pocket. Here we show that the cytoplasmic rim around the Mdr recognition pocket represents a previously overlooked important regulatory determinant in MdfA. We demonstrate that increasing the positive charge of the electrically asymmetric rim dramatically inhibits MdfA activity and sometimes even leads to influx of planar, positively charged compounds, resulting in drug sensitivity. Our results suggest that unlike the mutants with the electrically modified rim, the membrane-embedded wild-type MdfA exhibits a significant probability of an inward-closed conformation, which is further increased by drug binding. Since MdfA binds drugs from its inward-facing environment, these results are intriguing and raise the possibility that the transporter has a sensitive, drug-induced conformational switch, which favors an inward-closed state.
Stickstoffmonoxid (NO) ist ein gasförmiger Botenstoff, der über die Regulation des Vasotonus, die Hemmung der Thrombocytenaggregation sowie die Stimulation der Angiogenese auf die vaskuläre Homöostase einwirkt. Das wichtigste NO-produzierende Enzym im kardiovaskulären System ist die endotheliale NO-Synthase (eNOS), deren Aktivität durch posttranslationale Modifikationen wie Phosphorylierung und Acylierung, durch Interaktionen mit regulatorischen Proteinen wie Ca2 /Calmodulin und Caveolin sowie durch differentielle subzelluläre Lokalisation reguliert wird. Dabei sind die Faktoren, welche die (Trans-)Lokation der eNOS zwischen subzellulären Kompartimenten wie den Caveolae der Plasmamembran und dem Golgi-Apparat dirigieren, weitgehend unbekannt. Zur Identifizierung neuer Interaktionspartner wurde humane eNOS im "yeast two-hybrid"-System als "Köderprotein" eingesetzt und dabei das Fragment eines neuen humanen Proteins identifiziert, das vorläufig NOSTRIN (für: eNOS traffic inducer) genannt wurde. Im Rahmen der vorliegenden Arbeit gelang nun die Klonierung der kompletten NOSTRIN-cDNA, der Nachweis einer spezifischen Interaktion von eNOS und NOSTRIN in Säugerzellen sowie die Charakterisierung von NOSTRIN als Modulator der subzellulären Lokalisation und Aktivität von eNOS. Nach der kompletten Klonierung der NOSTRIN-cDNA mit Hilfe einer 5'-RACE resultierte ein offenes Leseraster von 506 Aminosäuren entsprechend einer Größe von ca. 58 kDa für NOSTRIN. Eine Datenbankrecherche zum Vergleich der NOSTRIN-Sequenz mit Sequenzen bekannter Proteinmotive ergab die Vorhersage einer N-terminalen Cdc15-Domäne sowie einer C-terminalen SH3-Domäne. Die direkte Interaktion zwischen eNOS und NOSTRIN konnte durch Copräzipitation in vivo und in vitro bestätigt werden. Weiterhin wurde nachgewiesen, dass die SH3-Domäne von NOSTRIN essentiell für die Bindung an eNOS ist. Zur Untersuchung des Einflusses von NOSTRIN auf die eNOS-Lokalisation wurden stabil transfizierte CHO-Zellen, die eNOS überexprimierten ("CHO-eNOS") eingesetzt. In der Immunofluoreszenz war eNOS vornehmlich in Assoziation mit der Plasmamembran und dem Golgi-Apparat zu sehen. Mit Hilfe des Semliki-Forest-Virussystems (SFV) wurde nun NOSTRIN transient überexprimiert; dabei zeigte sich für NOSTRIN eine vesikelartige Verteilung im Cytoplasma. Die NOSTRIN-Überexpression führte zu einer drastischen Umverteilung von eNOS, die nun in charakteristischen vesikelartigen Strukturen mit NOSTRIN colokalisierte. Die Verwendung von NOSTRIN-Konstukten, bei denen die SH3- Domäne deletiert war ("NOSTRIN.SH3"), veränderte zwar die typische NOSTRIN-Lokalisation nicht, ließ aber auch die subzelluläre Verteilung von eNOS unverändert, so dass NOSTRIN.SH3 und eNOS in unterschiedlichen zellulären Kompartimenten lokalisiert waren. Mit Hilfe der Immunofluoreszenz konnte ebenfalls eine Colokalisation von NOSTRIN und Caveolin-1, einem inhibitorisch wirkenden Interaktionspartner von eNOS, nachgewiesen werden. Die Analyse von Copräzipitationen mit NOSTRIN bzw. NOSTRIN.SH3 zeigte, dass Caveolin-1 in eNOS-unabhängiger Weise an NOSTRIN bindet, so dass ein ternärer Komplex aus NOSTRIN, eNOS und Caveolin-1 resultiert. Zur Klärung der Frage, ob NOSTRIN neben der subzellulären Lokalisation auch die Aktivität von eNOS beeinflusst, wurde die NO-Freisetzung von CHO-eNOS-Zellen analysiert. Dabei ergab sich, dass die transiente Überexpression von NOSTRIN in CHO-eNOS-Zellen die eNOS-Aktivität um 62 % im Vergleich zu Kontrollzellen reduzierte. In humanen primären Endothelzellen konnte mittels Immunoblotting und Immunofluoreszenzmikroskopie das Vorkommen von endogenem NOSTRIN sowie dessen Colokalisation mit endogener eNOS an der Plasmamembran nachgewiesen werden. Die Ergebnisse der vorliegenden Dissertation führen zur Hypothese, dass NOSTRIN als "molekulare Klammer" zwischen eNOS und Caveolin-1 dient, eine dynamische Umverteilung von eNOS innerhalb der Zelle vermittelt und damit das Enzym - direkt und/oder indirekt - inhibiert. Somit dürfte NOSTRIN als Modulator der Aktivität und Lokalisation von eNOS eine wichtige Rolle bei der Regulation der endothelialen NO-Produktion spielen.
Mechanistic and structural studies of membrane proteins require their stabilization in specific conformations. Single domain antibodies are potent reagents for this purpose, but their generation relies on immunizations, which impedes selections in the presence of ligands typically needed to populate defined conformational states. To overcome this key limitation, we developed an in vitro selection platform based on synthetic single domain antibodies named sybodies. To target the limited hydrophilic surfaces of membrane proteins, we designed three sybody libraries that exhibit different shapes and moderate hydrophobicity of the randomized surface. A robust binder selection cascade combining ribosome and phage display enabled the generation of conformation-selective, high affinity sybodies against an ABC transporter and two previously intractable human SLC transporters, GlyT1 and ENT1. The platform does not require access to animal facilities and builds exclusively on commercially available reagents, thus enabling every lab to rapidly generate binders against challenging membrane proteins.
A high-precision pressure probe is described which allows non-invasive online-monitoring of the water relations of intact leaves. Real-time recording of the leaf water status occurred by data transfer to an Internet server. The leaf patch clamp pressure probe measures the attenuated pressure, Pp, of a leaf patch in response to a constant clamp pressure, Pclamp. Pp is sensed by a miniaturized silicone pressure sensor integrated into the device. The magnitude of Pp is dictated by the transfer function of the leaf, Tf, which is a function of leaf patch volume and ultimately of cell turgor pressure, Pc, as shown theoretically. The power function Tf=f(Pc) theoretically derived was experimentally confirmed by concomitant Pp and Pc measurements on intact leaflets of the liana Tetrastigma voinierianum under greenhouse conditions. Simultaneous Pp recordings on leaflets up to 10 m height above ground demonstrated that changes in Tf induced by Pc changes due to changes of microclimate and/or of the irrigation regime were sensitively reflected in corresponding changes of Pp. Analysis of the data show that transpirational water loss during the morning hours was associated with a transient rise in turgor pressure gradients within the leaflets. Subsequent recovery of turgescence during the afternoon was much faster than the preceding transpiration-induced water loss if the plants were well irrigated. Our data show the enormous potential of the leaf patch clamp pressure probe for leaf water studies including unravelling of the hydraulic communication between neighbouring leaves and over long distances within tall plants (trees).
Membrane-Phloretin Interaction, Infrared Raman, ESR Spectroscopy The transport inhibitor phloretin was bound to human red cell membrane and the concomitant structural changes were observed by spectroscopic methods. By the spin labeling method a decrease in fluidity of the membrane was found at 1 and 10 |iM concentrations of the reagent. This result was obtained with the 2-(3-Carboxypropyl)-4,4-dimethyl-2-tridecyl-3-oxazolidinyloxyl, and the 2-(14-Carboxytetradecyl)-2-ethyl-4,4-dimethyl-3-oxazolidinyloxyl lipid spin labels. Infrared spectroscopy of modified membranes revealed an intensity increase of the POO~ band at about 1250 cm-1. Moreover, a shift of the peak at 1050 cm -1 to 1100 cm-1 was observed in the presence of phloretin. Raman spectroscopy of the membranes did not contradict the results found with infrared and ESR spectroscopy: In the phloretin modified membrane we observed a lack of the band at 1085 cm-1, which leads to suggest that the POO" and/or C-C regions are less fluid. Changes of the extracted red cell membrane lipids were less characteristic, and the results differed from those found in red cell membrane.
The technique of site-specific fluorescence labelling with Tetramethylrhodaminemaleimide (TMRM) in combination with two electrode voltage-clamp technique (TEVC), an approach that has been named voltage clamp fluorometry (VCF), has been used in this work to study the Na,K-ATPase. The TMRM dye has the ability to attach covalently to cysteine residues and it responds to changes in the hydrophobicity of its local environment. We exploited this property using a construct of the Na-pump in which the native, extracellularly accessible cysteines were removed and cysteine residues were introduced by site-directed mutagenesis in specific positions of the Na-pump. In this way it was possible to detect site-specific conformational rearrangements of the Na-pump in a time-resolved fashion within a native membrane environment. In particular this technique allows to resolve reactions with low electrogenicity that cannot be satisfactorily analyzed with purely electrophysiological techniques and to identify the conformations of the enzyme under specific ionic composition of the measuring buffers. We used VCF to study the influence that several cations like Na+, K+, NMG+, TEA+ and BTEA+ exert on the distribution of the Na,K-ATPase between several enzymatic intermediates and on some of the reactions related to cation transport. To this end we utilized the mutants N790C in the loop M5-M6 and the mutant E307C, T309C, L311C and E312C in the loop M3-M4. From the correspondence of the fluorescence changes with the activation and inhibition of pumping current, by K+ and ouabain respectively, and from the fact that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions the voltage distribution of charge movement and fluorescence changes evoked by voltage jumps are in reasonable agreement we conclude that through the fluorescence signals measured from these mutants, we can indeed monitor conformational changes linked to transport activity of the enzyme. For the mutants N790 and L311, it was found that the Na+ dependence of the amplitude and kinetics of the fluorescence signal associated with the E1P-E2P transition is in agreement with the prediction of an access channel model describing the regulation of the access of extracellular Na+ to its binding site. In particular for the mutants E307 and T309 it was found that in Na+/Na+ exchange conditions, the conformational change tracked by the fluorescence was much slower than the charge relaxation at hyperpolarized potentials while the kinetics was very similar at depolarized potentials. This implies that at hyperpolarized potentials the conformational change connected to the E1P-E2P transition does not give a large contribution to the electrogenicity of the process which is also consistent with the access channel model. On the mutant N790C it was found that the external pH does not seem to have any effect on the E1P-E2P equilibrium even if it seems to modulate the fluorescence quantum yield of the dye. Fluorescence quenching experiments with iodide and D2O indicate that at hyperpolarized potentials the local environment of the mutant N790C, experiences a small change in the accessibility to water without major changes in the local electrostatic field ...
Proton-pumping complex I of the mitochondrial respiratory chain is among the largest and most complex membrane protein complexes. The enzyme contributes substantially to oxidative energy-conversion in eukaryotic cells. Its malfunctions are implicated in many hereditary and degenerative disorders. Here, we report the X-ray structure of mitochondrial complex I at 3.6- 3.9 Å resolution describing in detail the central subunits that execute the bioenergetic function. A continuous axis of basic and acidic residues running centrally through the membrane arm connects the ubiquinone reduction site in the hydrophilic arm to four putative proton-pumping units. The binding position for a substrate analogous inhibitor and blockage of the predicted ubiquinone binding site provide a model for the ‘deactive’ form of the enzyme. The proposed transition into the active form is based on a concerted structural rearrangement at the ubiquinone reduction site rendering support for a two-state stabilization-change mechanism of protonpumping.
Membrane-bound complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) of the respiratory chain is considered the main site of mitochondrial radical formation and plays a major role in many mitochondrial pathologies. Structural information is scarce for complex I, and its molecular mechanism is not known. Recently, the 49-kDa subunit has been identified as part of the "catalytic core" conferring ubiquinone reduction by complex I. We found that the position of the 49-kDa subunit is clearly separated from the membrane part of complex I, suggesting an indirect mechanism of proton translocation. This contradicts all hypothetical mechanisms discussed in the field that link proton translocation directly to redox events and suggests an indirect mechanism of proton pumping by redox-driven conformational energy transfer.
A metal–organic framework (MOF) material, [Zn2(adc)2(dabco)] (adc = anthracene-9,10-dicarboxylate, dabco = 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane), the fluorescence of which depends on the loading of its nanopores, was synthesized in two forms: as free-flowing nanocrystals with different shapes and as surface-attached MOFs (SURMOFs). For the latter, we used self-assembled monolayers (SAMs) bearing functional groups, such as carboxylate and pyridyl groups, capable of coordinating to the constituents of the MOF. It could be demonstrated that this directed coordination also orients the nanocrystals deposited at the surface. Using two different patterning methods, i.e., microcontact printing and electron-beam lithography, the lateral distribution of the functional groups could be determined in such a way that the highly localized deposition of the SURMOF films became possible.
Metallorganische Netzwerke (engl. metal-organic frameworks, MOFs) sind eine neuartige Klasse mikro/mesoporöser Materialien, für die eine Vielzahl von möglichen Anwendungen demonstriert werden konnte. Das Ziel dieser Arbeit besteht in der Synthese von MOF Mikro/Nanopartikeln sowie der Herstellung von sogenannten Oberflächen-deponierten MOFs (engl. surface-attached metal-organic frameworks, SURMOFs). MOF Partikel mit kontrollierbarer Morphologie und Größe wurden unter milden Bedingungen synthetisiert. Um MOFs als Sensoren, intelligente Membrane, oder in nanotechnologischen Bauelementen verwenden zu können, ist die Integration auf der jeweiligen Oberfläche wichtig. Daher beschäftigt sich der Großteil dieser Arbeit mit der kontrollierten Abscheidung von SURMOFs auf verschiedenartigen Trägermaterialien. Etliche interessante Eigenschaften (z.B. die Fluoreszenz in Abhängigkeit von der Gegenwart von Gastmolekülen und die dynamische Gasadsorptionskapazität) der SURMOFs wurden untersucht.
The Na+/proline transporter of E. Coli (PutP) is responsible for the uptake of proline which is subsequently used not only as a carbon and nitrogen source and a constituent of proteins but also as a particularly effective osmoprotectant. However, for a long time there was little known about the single steps in the reaction cycle of this transporter and only few details about its structure-function relationship are available. Aim of the present work was to achieve a deeper understanding about the kinetic properties of the Na+/proline transporter and to get insights into the structure-function relationship of the substrate binding. To answer these questions different techniques were used. By using the novel SSM technique combining the preparation of PutP proteoliposomes it was possible to demonstrate for the first time the electrogenic substrate binding to PutP transporter. Due to rapid solution exchange measurements on the SSM it was additionally possible to obtain time resolved information about the kinetic details of the cytoplasmic substrate binding sites which were not available by previous steady state and equilibrium binding measurements. Pre-steady-state charge translocation was observed after rapid addition of one or both of the cosubstrates Na+ and/or proline to the PutP-WT proteoliposomes adsorbed on the SSM. Thereby it was possible to link the observed electrical signals with the binding activity of PutP. The observed Na+ and/or proline induced charge displacement were assigned to an electrogenic Na+ and/or proline binding process at the cytoplasmic face of the enzyme with a rate constant of k > 50 s-1 proceeding the rate limiting step of the reaction cycle. Furthermore, based on the kinetic analysis of the electrical signals obtained from the measurements of PutP on SSM, the following characteristics of the substrates binding in PutP were deduced: (1) both Na+ and proline can bind individually to the transporter. Under physiological conditions, an ordered binding mechanism prevails; while at sufficiently high concentrations, each substrate can bind in the absence of the other; (2) substrate binding is electrogenic not only for Na+, but also for the uncharged cosubstrate proline. The charge displacement associated with Na+ binding and proline binding is of comparable size and independent of the presence of the respective cosubstrate. In addition, it was concluded that Na+ accesses its binding site through a high-field access channel resulting in a charge translocation, whereas the binding of the electroneutral proline induces a conformation alteration involving the displacement of charged amino acid residue(s) of the protein; (3) Na+ and proline binding sites interact cooperatively with each other by increasing the affinity and/or the speed of binding of the respective cosubstrate; (4) proline binding proceeds in a two step process: low affinity (~ 0.9 mM) electroneutral substrate binding followed by a nearly irreversible electrogenic conformational transition; (5) membrane impermeable PCMBS inhibits both Na+ and proline binding to the inside-out orientated PutP transporter, indicating that rather than selectively blocking a specific binding site, PCMBS probably locks the enzyme in an inactive state. The possible targets for this SH-reagent are cysteines 281 and 344 located close to the cytoplasmic surface of the protein. Beyond it, transient electrical currents of PutP were also observed on the BLM after rapid addition of proline in the presence of Na+. This was possible by combining the conventional BLM technique with high-speed flash-photolysis of caged-proline. Indeed the signals on the BLM indicate the detection of a different underlying reaction process in comparison to the data achieved by the SSM technique. This has paved the way for supplemental information about the reaction cycle since it was possible to assign the flash-photolysis BLM signals to the proline binding step followed by the internalization of Na+ and proline into the liposome. Thereby it was found, that the presence of Na+ is indispensable and the time constant for the process is ~ 63 ms. Moreover, structure-function information about the Na+ and proline binding sites of PutP was obtained by investigating the functionally important amino acid residues Asp55, Gly63 and Asp187 with site-directed mutagenesis and the combined SSM technique. One finding is that the mutated proteins PutP-D55C and PutP-G63C showed no activity on the SSM. Therefore, it can be assumed that either both Asp55 and Gly63 are crucial for the structure of PutP protein, or they are located at or close to the Na+ and proline binding sites. Furthermore, the results obtained from PutP-D187N and PutP-D187C mutants on SSM suggest that Asp187 of PutP is likely to be involved in the Na+ binding at the cytoplasmic side of the backward running carrier. Taken together the results of the present work have substantially broadened the known picture of the Na+/proline transporter PutP thereby several steps of the reaction cycle were elucidated, and moreover, valuable insights into the structure-function relationship of the transporter have become available.
Der Schwerpunkt der vorliegenden Arbeit lag in der Synthese und strukturellen Charakterisierung von sandwichartig aufgebauten kupferhaltigen Organosiloxanen. Diese sollten nach Möglichkeit kristalline Eigenschaften aufweisen und ein interessantes magnetisches Verhalten zeigen. Es galt, die Beziehungen zwischen molekularer Struktur und magnetischen Eigenschaften herauszuarbeiten, um auf der Basis experimenteller Daten dem maßgeschneiderten Design neuer molekularer Magnete näher zu kommen. .... Die in der hier vorgelegten Arbeit erzielten Ergebnisse belegen, dass der Weg zur gezielten Erzeugung molekularer Magnete erfolgreich beschritten wurde. Es wird weiteren Arbeiten vorbehalten bleiben, Cluster der nun vorliegenden Art chemisch so zu verknüpfen, dass daraus polymere Ketten oder Netzwerke entstehen. Deren magnetisches Verhalten lässt erwarten, dass damit möglicherweise neue Materialien zugänglich werden, die dem Anspruch eines molekularen Magneten voll gerecht werden.
Reciprocal t(9;22) ABL/BCR fusion proteins: leukemogenic potential and effects on B cell commitment
(2009)
Background: t(9;22) is a balanced translocation, and the chromosome 22 breakpoints (Philadelphia chromosome – Ph+) determine formation of different fusion genes that are associated with either Ph+ acute lymphatic leukemia (Ph+ ALL) or chronic myeloid leukemia (CML). The "minor" breakpoint in Ph+ ALL encodes p185BCR/ABL from der22 and p96ABL/BCR from der9. The "major" breakpoint in CML encodes p210BCR/ABL and p40ABL/BCR. Herein, we investigated the leukemogenic potential of the der9-associated p96ABL/BCR and p40ABL/BCR fusion proteins and their roles in the lineage commitment of hematopoietic stem cells in comparison to BCR/ABL. Methodology: All t(9;22) derived proteins were retrovirally expressed in murine hematopoietic stem cells (SL cells) and human umbilical cord blood cells (UCBC). Stem cell potential was determined by replating efficiency, colony forming - spleen and competitive repopulating assays. The leukemic potential of the ABL/BCR fusion proteins was assessed by in a transduction/transplantation model. Effects on the lineage commitment and differentiation were investigated by culturing the cells under conditions driving either myeloid or lymphoid commitment. Expression of key factors of the B-cell differentiation and components of the preB-cell receptor were determined by qRT-PCR. Principal Findings: Both p96ABL/BCR and p40ABL/BCR increased proliferation of early progenitors and the short term stem cell capacity of SL-cells and exhibited own leukemogenic potential. Interestingly, BCR/ABL gave origin exclusively to a myeloid phenotype independently from the culture conditions whereas p96ABL/BCR and to a minor extent p40ABL/BCR forced the B-cell commitment of SL-cells and UCBC. Conclusions/Significance: Our here presented data establish the reciprocal ABL/BCR fusion proteins as second oncogenes encoded by the t(9;22) in addition to BCR/ABL and suggest that ABL/BCR contribute to the determination of the leukemic phenotype through their influence on the lineage commitment.
Unlimited self-renewal is an absolute prerequisite for any malignancy, and is the ultimate arbiter of the continuous growth and metastasis of tumors. It has been suggested that the self-renewal properties of a tumor are exclusively contained within a small population, i.e., the so-called cancer stem cells. Enhanced self-renewal potential plays a pivotal role in the development of leukemia. My data have shown that APL associated translocation products PML/RARalpha and PLZF/RARalpha increased the replating efficiency of mouse lin-/Sca1+ hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs). This effect is partly mediated by induction of gamma–catenin which is an important mediator of the Wnt signaling pathway and has been shown to be up regulated by the AML associated translocation products(AATPs). Suppression of gamma–catenin by siRNA can abrogate the increased replating efficiency induced by AATPs. Transduction of gamma–catenin in lin-/Sca1+ HSCs led to increased replating efficiency and the expression of stem cell markers Sca1 and c-kit. Additionally it induced accelerated cell cycle progression of mouse bone marrow HSCs. Transduction/transplantation mouse models have shown that ectopic expression of gamma–catenin in HSCs led to acute myeloid leukemia without maturation. These data suggest important roles of Wnt signaling pathway in the leukemogenesis induced by PML/RARalpha, PLZF/RARalpha and AML1/ETO. In contrast to AATPs, CML and Ph+-ALL associated translocation products p185(BCR-ABL) and p210(BCR-ABL) did not affect the self-renewal potential of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. However my studies indicated that their reciprocal translocation products p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) actually increased the replating efficiency of hematopoietic stem/progenitor cells. The effect is stronger when induced by p96(ABL/BCR) than by p40(ABL/BCR). It is very intriguing that p96(ABL/BCR) can activate Wnt signaling and up regulate the expression of HoxB4. Transduction/transplantation mouse model has shown that p40(ABL/BCR) and p96(ABL/BCR) both have their own leukemogenic potential. Given the fact that leukemic stem cells maintain the growth of tumor and are the origin of relapse, the cure of leukemia is dependent on the eradication of the leukemic stem cell and abrogation of aberrantly regulated self-renewal capability. Both t-RA and As2O3 have been shown to induce complete remission in APL patients with PML/RARalpha translocation product. However, t-RA as a single agent achieves completeremission (CR) but not complete molecular remissions (CMR). Therefore, virtually all patients will experience a relapse within a few months. In contrast to t-RA, As2O3 as a single agent is able to induce CR as well as CMR followed by long-term relapse-free survival in about 50% of APL patients even if relapsed after treatment with t-RA-containing chemotherapy regimens. Nothing is known about the mechanisms leading to the complete different clinical outcomes by the two compounds although both have been shown to induce differentiation of blast cells, proliferation arrest, induction of apoptosis and degradation of PML/RARalpha. We investigated the effect of t-RA and arsenic on PML/RARalpha-expressing cell population with stem cell capacity derived from the APL cell line NB4 as well as Sca1+/lin- murine bone marrow cells. We found that t-RA did not reduce the replating efficiency in PML/RARalpha- and PLZF/RARalpha-infected Sca1+/lincells whereas it selected small compact colonies representing very early progenitor cells. T-RA was unable to reduce the capacity to form colony forming units-spleen (CFU-S) of Sca1+/lin-cells expressing PML/RARalpha, additionally t-RA did not impair the capability of engraftment of NB4 cells in NOD/SCID mouse. On the contrary to t-RA, As2O3 abolished the aberrant self-renewal potential of Sca1+/lin- cells expressing PML/RARalpha. As2O3 not only abolished the replating efficiency of PML/RARalpha positive cells but also completely abrogated the ability of PML/RARalpha-positive HSC to produce CFU-S in vivo. On the contrary to As2O3, t-RA increased the absolute cell number and the percentage of cells in the side population with respect to the whole cell population in NB4 cells. Taken together these data suggest that arsenic but not all-trans retinoic acid overcomes the aberrant stem cell capacity of PML/RARalpha positive leukemic stem cells. My data prove for the first time that there is a direct relationship between the capacity of compounds to effectively target the LSC and their capacity to eradicate the leukemia, and, thereby, to induce complete molecular remission and long-term relapse-free survival. Thus, in order to increase the curative potential of leukemia therapies, future studies need to include the effect of given compounds on the stem cell compartment to determine their ability to eradicate the LSC.