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Chemokines play a key role in the cellular infiltration of inflamed tissue. They are released by a wide variety of cell types during the initial phase of host response to injury, allergens, antigens, or invading microorganisms, and selectively attract leukocytes to inflammatory foci, inducing both migration and activation. Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), a member of the CC chemokine superfamily, functions in attracting monocytes, T lymphocytes, and basophils to sites of inflammation. MCP-1 is produced by monocytes, fibroblasts, vascular endothelial cells and smooth muscle cells in response to various stimuli such as tumour necrosis factor-a (TNF-a), interferon-g (IFN-g), and interleukin-1b (IL-1b). It also plays an important role in the pathogenesis of chronic inflammation, and overexpression of MCP-1 has been implicated in diseases including glomerulonephritis and rheumatoid arthritis. Oligonucleotide-directed triple helix formation offers a means to target specific sequences in DNA and interfere with gene expression at the transcriptional level. Triple helix-forming oligonucleotides (TFOs) bind to homopurine/homopyrimidine sequences, forming a stable, sequence-specific complex with the duplex DNA. Purine-rich sequences are frequent in gene regulatory regions and TFOs directed to promoter sequences have been shown to prevent binding of transcription factors and inhibit transcription initiation and elongation. Exogenous TFOs that bind homopurine/ homopyrimidine DNA sequences and form triple-helices can be rationally designed, while the intracellular delivery of single-stranded RNA TFOs has not been studied in detail before. In this study, expression vectors were constructed which directed transcription of either a 19 nt triplex-forming pyrimidine CU-TFO sequence targeting the human MCP-1 or two different 19 nt GU- or CA-control sequences, respectively, together with the vector encoded hygromycin resistance mRNA as one fusion transcript. HEK 293 cells were stable transfected with these vectors and several TFO and control cell lines were generated. Functional relevant triplex formation of a TFO with a corresponding 19 bp GC-rich AP-1/SP-1 site of the human MCP-1 promoter was shown. Binding of synthetic 19 nt CUTFO to the MCP-1 promoter duplex was verified by triplex blotting at pH 6.7. Underlining binding specificity, control sequences, including the GU- and CA-sequence, a TFO containing one single mismatch and a MCP-1 promoter duplex containing two mismatches, did not participate in triplex formation. Establishing a magnetic capture technique with streptavidin microbeads it was verified that at pH 7.0 the 19 nt TFO embedded in a 1.1 kb fusion transcript binds to a plasmid encoded MCP-1 promoter target duplex three times stronger than the controls. Finally, cell culture experiments revealed 76 ± 10.2% inhibition of MCP-1 protein secretion in TNF-a stimulated CU-TFO harboring cell lines and up to 88% after TNF-a and IFN-g costimulation in comparison to controls. Expression of interleukin-8 (IL-8) as one TNF-a inducible control gene was not affected by CU-TFO, demonstrating both highly specific and effective chemokine gene repression. Furthermore, another chemokine target, regulated upon activation normal T cell expressed and secreted (RANTES), which plays an essential role in inflammation by recruiting T lymphocytes, macrophages and eosinophils to inflammatory sites, was analysed using the triplex approach. A 28 nt TFO was designed targeting the murine RANTES gene promoter, and gel mobility shift assays demonstrated that the phosphodiester TFO formed a sequencespecific triplex with the double-stranded target DNA with a Kd of 2.5 x 10-7 M. It was analysed whether RANTES expression could be inhibited at the transcriptional level testing the TFO in two different cell lines, T helper-1 lymphocytes and brain microvascular endothelial cells (bend3 cells). Although there was a sequence-specific binding of the TFO detectable in the gel shift assays, there was no inhibitory effect of the exogenously added and phosphorothioate stabilised TFO on endogenous RANTES gene expression visible. Additionally, the small interfering RNA (siRNA) approach was tested as another strategy to inhibit expression of the pro-inflammatory chemokines MCP-1 and RANTES. Two different methods were pursuit, describing transient transfection with vector derived and synthetic siRNA. The vector pSUPER containing the siRNA coding sequence was used to suppress endogenous MCP-1 in HEK 293 cells. An empty vector without RNA sequence served as a control. Inhibition due to the siRNA was measured in stimulated and unstimulated cells. In TNF-a stimulated cells MCP-1 protein synthesis was decreased by 35 ± 11% after siRNA transfection. Using a synthetic double-stranded siRNA, the TNF-a induced MCP-1 protein secretion could be successfully inhibited about 62.3 ± 10.3% in HEK 293 cells, indicating that the siRNA is functional in these cells to suppress chemokine expression. The siRNA approach targeting murine RANTES in Th1 cells and b-end3 cells revealed no inhibition of endogenous gene expression. Gene therapy approaches rely on efficient transfer of genes to the desired target cells. A wide variety of viral and nonviral vectors have been developed and evaluated for their efficiency of transduction, sustained expression of the transgene, and safety. Among them, lentiviruses have been widely used for gene therapy applications. In order to improve the delivery of TFOs or siRNAs into the target cells, cloning of the lentiviral transfer vector SEW, the production of lentiviral particles by transient transfection were performed with the aim to generate lentiviral vector-derived TFOs in further experiments. Here, Th1 cells were transduced with infectious lentiviral particles and transduction efficacy was measured. Transduction efficacy higher than 82% could be achieved using the lentiviral vector SEW, opening optimal possibilities for the TFO or siRNA approach.
Patient therapy is based mainly on a combination of diagnosis, suitable monitoring or support devices and drug treatment and is usually employed for a pre-existing disease condition. Therapy remains predominantly symptom-based, although it is increasingly clear that individual treatment is possible and beneficial. However, reasonable precision medicine can only be realized with the coordinated use of diagnostics, devices and drugs in combination with extensive databases (4Ds), an approach that has not yet found sufficient implementation. The practical combination of 4Ds in health care is progressing, but several obstacles still hamper their extended use in precision medicine.
5-Lipoxygenase contributes to PPAR [gamma] activation in macrophages in response to apoptotic cells
(2012)
Background: One hallmark contributing to immune suppression during the late phase of sepsis is macrophage polarization to an anti-inflammatory phenotype upon contact with apoptotic cells (AC). Taking the important role of the nuclear receptor PPARγ for this phenotype switch into consideration, it remains elusive how AC activate PPARγ in macrophages. Therefore, we were interested to characterize the underlying principle.
Methods: Apoptosis was induced by treatment of Jurkat T cells for 3 hours with 0.5 μg/ml staurosporine. Necrotic cells (NC) were prepared by heating cells for 20 minutes to 65°C. PPARγ activation was followed by stably transducing RAW264.7 macrophages with a vector encoding the red fluorescent protein mRuby after PPARγ binding to 4 × PPRE sites downstream of the reporter gene sequence. This readout was established by treatment with the PPARγ agonist rosiglitazone (1 μM) and AC (5:1). Twenty-four hours after stimulation, mRuby expression was analysed by fluorescence microscopy. Lipid rafts of AC, NC, as well as living cells (LC) were enriched by sucrose gradient centrifugation. Fractions were analysed for lipid raft-associated marker proteins. Lipid rafts were incubated with transduced RAW264.7 macrophages as described above. 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) involvement was verified by pharmacological inhibition (MK-866, 1 μM) and overexpression.
Results: Assuming that the molecule responsible for PPARγ activation in macrophages is localized in the cell membrane of AC, most probably associated to lipid rafts, we isolated lipid rafts from AC, NC and LC. Mass spectrometric analysis of lipid rafts of AC showed the expression of 5-LO, whereas lipid rafts of LC did not. Moreover, incubating macrophages with lipid rafts of AC induced mRuby expression. In contrast, lipid rafts of NC and LC did not. To verify the involvement of 5-LO in activating PPARγ in macrophages, Jurkat T cells were incubated for 30 minutes with the 5-LO inhibitor MK-866 (1 μM) before apoptosis induction. In line with our hypothesis, these AC did not induce mRuby expression. Finally, although living Jurkat T cells overexpressing 5-LO did not activate PPARγ in macrophages, mRuby expression was significantly increased when AC were generated from 5-LO overexpressing compared with wild-type Jurkat cells.
Conclusion: Our results suggest that induction of apoptosis activates 5-LO, localizing to lipid rafts, necessary for PPARγ activation in macrophages. Therefore, it will be challenging to determine whether 5-LO activity in AC, generated from other cell types, correlates with PPARγ activation, contributing to an immune-suppressed phenotype in macrophages.
Since hyperactivity of the protein kinase DYRK1A is linked to several neurodegenerative disorders, DYRK1A inhibitors have been suggested as potential therapeutics for Down syndrome and Alzheimer’s disease. Most published inhibitors to date suffer from low selectivity against related kinases or from unfavorable physicochemical properties. In order to identify DYRK1A inhibitors with improved properties, a series of new chemicals based on [b]-annulated halogenated indoles were designed, synthesized, and evaluated for biological activity. Analysis of crystal structures revealed a typical type-I binding mode of the new inhibitor 4-chlorocyclohepta[b]indol-10(5H)-one in DYRK1A, exploiting mainly shape complementarity for tight binding. Conversion of the DYRK1A inhibitor 8-chloro-1,2,3,9-tetrahydro-4H-carbazol-4-one into a corresponding Mannich base hydrochloride improved the aqueous solubility but abrogated kinase inhibitory activity.
Bromodomains (BRDs) are conserved protein interaction modules which recognize (read) acetyl-lysine modifications, however their role(s) in regulating cellular states and their potential as targets for the development of targeted treatment strategies is poorly understood. Here we present a set of 25 chemical probes, selective small molecule inhibitors, covering 29 human bromodomain targets. We comprehensively evaluate the selectivity of this probe-set using BROMOscan and demonstrate the utility of the set identifying roles of BRDs in cellular processes and potential translational applications. For instance, we discovered crosstalk between histone acetylation and the glycolytic pathway resulting in a vulnerability of breast cancer cell lines under conditions of glucose deprivation or GLUT1 inhibition to inhibition of BRPF2/3 BRDs. This chemical probe-set will serve as a resource for future applications in the discovery of new physiological roles of bromodomain proteins in normal and disease states, and as a toolset for bromodomain target validation.
The prediction of protein–ligand interactions and their corresponding binding free energy is a challenging task in structure-based drug design and related applications. Docking and scoring is broadly used to propose the binding mode and underlying interactions as well as to provide a measure for ligand affinity or differentiate between active and inactive ligands. Various studies have revealed that most docking software packages reliably predict the binding mode, although scoring remains a challenge. Here, a diverse benchmark data set of 99 matched molecular pairs (3D-MMPs) with experimentally determined X-ray structures and corresponding binding affinities is introduced. This data set was used to study the predictive power of 13 commonly used scoring functions to demonstrate the applicability of the 3D-MMP data set as a valuable tool for benchmarking scoring functions.
Background: Human genetic research has implicated functional variants of more than one hundred genes in the modulation of persisting pain. Artificial intelligence and machine‐learning techniques may combine this knowledge with results of genetic research gathered in any context, which permits the identification of the key biological processes involved in chronic sensitization to pain.
Methods: Based on published evidence, a set of 110 genes carrying variants reported to be associated with modulation of the clinical phenotype of persisting pain in eight different clinical settings was submitted to unsupervised machine‐learning aimed at functional clustering. Subsequently, a mathematically supported subset of genes, comprising those most consistently involved in persisting pain, was analysed by means of computational functional genomics in the Gene Ontology knowledgebase.
Results: Clustering of genes with evidence for a modulation of persisting pain elucidated a functionally heterogeneous set. The situation cleared when the focus was narrowed to a genetic modulation consistently observed throughout several clinical settings. On this basis, two groups of biological processes, the immune system and nitric oxide signalling, emerged as major players in sensitization to persisting pain, which is biologically highly plausible and in agreement with other lines of pain research.
Conclusions: The present computational functional genomics‐based approach provided a computational systems‐biology perspective on chronic sensitization to pain. Human genetic control of persisting pain points to the immune system as a source of potential future targets for drugs directed against persisting pain. Contemporary machine‐learned methods provide innovative approaches to knowledge discovery from previous evidence.
Significance: We show that knowledge discovery in genetic databases and contemporary machine‐learned techniques can identify relevant biological processes involved in Persitent pain.
Background: The oral administration of the gum resin extracts of Indian frankincense (Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr) results in very low plasma concentrations of boswellic acids (BAs), being far below the pharmacologically active concentrations required in vitro for anti-inflammatory activity. For that reason the use of Indian frankincense in clinical practice and pharmaceutical development has substantially lagged behind. Recently the application of new formulation technologies resulted in a formulation of frankincense extract with lecithin, which revealed improved absorption and tissue penetration of BAs in a rodent study, leading for the first time to plasma concentrations of BAs in the range of their anti-inflammatory activity.
Purpose: In order to verify these encouraging results in humans, the absorption of a standardized Boswellia serrata extract (BE) and its lecithin formulation (CSP) was comparatively investigated in healthy volunteers.
Study design: According to a randomized cross-over design with two treatments, two sequences and two periods, 12 volunteers alternatively received the lecithin-formulated Boswellia extract (CSP) or the non-formulated Boswellia extract (BE) at a dosage of 2 × 250 mg capsules.
Methods: The plasma concentrations of the six major BAs (KBA, AKBA, βBA, αBA, AβBA, AαBA) were determined using LC/MS.
Results: With the exception of KBA, a significantly higher (both in terms of weight-to-weight and molar comparison) and quicker absorption of BAs from the lecithin formulation was observed, leading to Cmax in the range required for the interaction with their molecular targets.
Conclusion: These findings pave the way to further studies evaluating the clinical potential of BAs, and verify the beneficial effect of lecithin formulation to improve the absorption of poorly soluble phytochemicals.
CD4+CD25+ regulatory T cells (Tregs) represent a specialized subpopulation of T cells, which are essential for maintaining peripheral tolerance and preventing autoimmunity. The immunomodulatory effects of Tregs depend on their activation status. Here we show that, in contrast to conventional anti-CD4 monoclonal antibodies (mAbs), the humanized CD4-specific monoclonal antibody tregalizumab (BT-061) is able to selectively activate the suppressive properties of Tregs in vitro. BT-061 activates Tregs by binding to CD4 and activation of signaling downstream pathways. The specific functionality of BT-061 may be explained by the recognition of a unique, conformational epitope on domain 2 of the CD4 molecule that is not recognized by other anti-CD4 mAbs. We found that, due to this special epitope binding, BT-061 induces a unique phosphorylation of T-cell receptor complex-associated signaling molecules. This is sufficient to activate the function of Tregs without activating effector T cells. Furthermore, BT-061 does not induce the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines. These results demonstrate that BT-061 stimulation via the CD4 receptor is able to induce T-cell receptor-independent activation of Tregs. Selective activation of Tregs via CD4 is a promising approach for the treatment of autoimmune diseases where insufficient Treg activity has been described. Clinical investigation of this new approach is currently ongoing.
Bei endogenen Retroviren handelt es sich um feste Bestandteile des Genoms. Im Fall von PERV (porzine endogene Retroviren) existieren zusätzlich infektiöse, xenotrope Vertreter. Aufgrund dieser Tatsache ist es notwendig, diese replikationskompetenten Proviren aus dem Genom potentieller Donortiere für die Xenotransplantation zu entfernen. Mit dem Wissen um die chromosomale Lage und der damit verbundenen Möglichkeit des Nachweises per PCR wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit gezeigt, dass aufgrund einer polymorphen Verteilung ein Ausschluss dieser funktionellen Proviren, mittels konventioneller Züchtung, möglich ist. Allerdings stellen sowohl die deletierten und mutierten proviralen Sequenzen durch eine Rekombination oder eine Komplementation, als auch ekotrope PERV-C ein Restrisiko im Falle einer Xenotransplantation dar. Es ist eine PERV-A/C Rekombinante beschrieben ex vivo worden, welche eine höhere Infektiösität aufweist als alle bisher untersuchten PERV. Bis auf die Rezeptor-Bindedomäne stellt dieses Virus ein PERV-C dar. Deshalb sollten chromosomal PERV-C identifiziert werden, um bei polymorpher Verteilung im Schweinegenom durch entsprechende Züchtung diese aus dem Genom heraushalten zu können. Im Rahmen dieser Arbeit ist es mit Hilfe einer speziellen PCR gelungen sieben Integrationsorte von PERV-C zu identifizieren. Da das Genom des Schweins bisher noch nicht komplett sequenziert ist, war es noch nicht möglich die gefundenen chromosomalen Bereiche zu kartieren. Dies wäre wiederum die Basis für eine Durchmusterung von Schweinen auf die Anwesenheit der gefundenen Proviren. Des Weiteren ist noch nicht bekannt, ob es sich bei diesen PERV-C um vollständige Proviren handelt, da aufgrund der verwendeten PCR und der sehr hohen Homologie verschiedener PERV untereinander nur provirale 3'Enden mit entsprechenden Flanken identifiziert werden konnten. Zusätzlich wurden in den Proben transgener Schweine PERV-C env spezifische Anteile nachgewiesen. Die Verteilung dieser Sequenzen, welche ebenfalls polymorph ist, gibt zwar keinen Aufschluss über die Anwesenheit eines Volllängen Provirus, jedoch ist aufgrund dieser Verteilung gleichfalls ein Ausschluss dieses Virus durch herkömmliche Züchtung möglich. Auf der anderen Seite besteht ein weiteres Risiko nach einer Xenotransplantation, wenn ein infektiöses PERV durch Komplementation gebildet wird, welches als Erbinformation ein env-deletiertes Provirus trägt. Das komplementierte PERV könnte potentiell, nach erfolgter Xenotransplantation, menschliche Zellen infizieren. Daraufhin wäre es zwar nicht mehr in der Lage infektiöse Partikel zu bilden, jedoch besteht noch das Risiko einer Retrotransposition, welche an sich schon mutagen wirkt. Zusätzlich könnten durch diesen Vorgang Gene zerstört oder Onkogene angeschaltet werden. Um dieses Risiko abschätzen zu können, wurden im Rahmen dieser Arbeit modifizierte Proviren von PERV-B(33) und MoMLV (Positivkontrolle) hergestellt und in einem Retrotranspositions Assay getestet. Die Modifikation der Proviren beinhaltete die Deletion des für die Retrotransposition nicht notwendigen env-Leserahmens, im Austausch gegen eine inserierte Indikatorkassette für die Retrotransposition (neoint). Im Rahmen der in dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Experimente konnte im Fall des Molekularklons PERV-B(33) eine Frequenz der Retrotransposition von maximal 1,2*10-6 pro Zelle und Generation ermittelt werden. Demzufolge stellt eine Retrotransposition von env-deletierten proviralen porzinen Sequenzen nach erfolgter Xenotransplantation ein minimales Risiko dar.
Acetaldehydaddukte an Hämoglobin werden als potentieller biochemischer Marker für Alkoholmissbrauch betrachtet, konnten aber bisher in vivo noch nicht eindeutig nachgewiesen werden. Es wurden Methoden entwickelt, um Acetaldehydmodifiziertes Hämoglobin sowohl nach Inkubation in vitro als auch in humanen Blutproben nachzuweisen. Verwendung fanden sowohl chromatographische als auch elektrophoretische Trennmethoden in Kombination mit unterschiedlichen Massenspektrometern zur Detektion. Es wurden unterschiedliche Patienten- und Probandenkollektive betrachtet. Aus Blutproben von Patienten aus Alkoholentzugskliniken, von Probanden eines kontrollierten Trinkversuches und Blutproben von Personen mit moderatem Alkoholkonsumverhalten wurde versucht, modifiziertes Hämoglobin mit Alkoholkonsum zu korrelieren. Desweiteren wurden Blutproben von Kindern untersucht, bei denen keine Alkoholexposition zu erwarten war, um eventuell vorhandenes endogenes modifiziertes Hämoglobin nachzuweisen. Zusätzlich zu den Untersuchungen in vitro und in vivo wurden auch post-mortale Proben analysiert, um modifiziertes Hämoglobin mit einem prämortalem Alkoholkonsum zu korrelieren und auf mögliche andere Einflüsse, insbesondere hinsichtlich post-mortaler Parameter zu untersuchen. Modifizierte Globinketten waren nach Synthese aus Hämoglobin und Acetaldehyd zugänglich und konnten in vitro nachgewiesen werden. Hierbei zeigte sich, dass Acetaldehyd auch mehrfach kovalent an beide Hämoglobinketten binden kann. Weder mehr- noch einfach modifizierte Hämoglobinketten konnten allerdings in authentischen humanen Blutproben nachgewiesen werden. Die Empfindlichkeit konnte jedoch nach proteolytischem Verdau so weit gesteigert werden, dass Acetaldehydmodifizierte Hämoglobinpeptide nicht nur nach Inkubation von Hämoglobin mit Acetaldehyd, sondern auch in authentischen Blutproben sämtlicher untersuchter Kollektive nachweisbar waren. Es wurde gezeigt, dass ein intermolekularer Austausch von Acetaldehyd nach proteolytischem Verdau zur Bildung eines Peptidadduktes am neu entstandenen N-Terminus des jeweiligen Peptides führen kann. Ein Hinweis auf andere mögliche Bindungsstellen ergab die Analyse des in vitro synthetisierten Peptides Hbα(17-31)2Ach mit zwei gebundenen Molekülen Acetaldehyd. Insgesamt konnten in authentischen Proben 10 Peptide mit Acetaldehydmodifikation, welche jeweils als chromatographisch trennbare Stereoisomere auftraten, nachgewiesen werden. Dies geht einher mit einer bereits vorgeschlagenen Bildung diastereomerer Imidazolidinonderivate. Acetaldehydmodifizierte Hämoglobinpeptide waren nicht nur in Proben von Patienten und Probanden mit nachweisbarem Blutalkohol vorhanden, sondern auch in Blutproben von Alkoholikern, Studenten und Kindern ohne akuten Alkoholkonsum. Der Nachweis dieser Addukte auch ohne exogene Alkohol- oder Acetaldehydexposition lässt darauf schliessen, dass diese posttranslationale Modifikation im menschlichen Körper abläuft, Acetaldehydaddukte also auch endogen gebildet werden. Ein erhöhtes Verhältnis von modifizierten Peptiden zu deren unmodifizierten Homologen zeigte sich konzentrationsabhängig nach Inkubation von Hämoglobin mit Acetaldehyd in vitro. Langfristiger zurückliegender Alkoholkonsum konnte in Studien mit Patienten einer Rehabilitationseinrichtung und mit Probanden mit moderatem Alkoholkonsum nicht mit Hämoglobinaddukten korreliert werden. Erhöhte Adduktverhältnisse im Vergleich mit Proben ohne Blutalkoholkonzentration des gleichen Kollektivs konnten bei Patienten einer Alkoholentzugsklinik, in post-mortalen Proben und im Rahmen eines kontrollierten Trinkversuches nachgewiesen werden. Die Kinetik der Bildung und Elimination Acetaldehydmodifizierten Hämoglobins wurde sowohl anhand von Blutproben von Patienten einer Alkoholentzugsklinik untersucht, erhöhte Adduktverhältnisse waren hier nur kürzer als 5 Tage nachweisbar. Diese schnelle Elimination wurde im Rahmen eines kontrollierten Trinkversuches bestätigt. Hierbei fand sich ein signifikanter Anstieg Acetaldehydmodifizierter Hämoglobinpeptide bereits nach einmaligem moderatem Alkoholkonsum, welcher bereits bei Blutalkoholkonzentrationen von durchschnittlich 0,12 g/L auftrat und noch mindestens 6 Stunden, aber nicht mehr 24 Stunden nach Trinkende anhielt. Daher liegt die mögliche Anwendung dieses empfindlichen Assays im Nachweis eines kurzfristigen Alkoholkonsums. Sämtliche Peptide wurden hinsichtlich Empfindlichkeit und Spezifität zur Identifizierung eines Alkoholkonsums sowohl in vivo als auch in post-mortalen Proben anhand unterschiedlicher Schwellenwerte untersucht. Desweiteren wurde für diese Peptide die analytische Präzision betrachtet. Als Markerpeptid eines kurzfristigen Alkoholkonsum sowohl in vivo als auch in post-mortalen Blutproben wird hierbei Hbα(32-40)Ach vorgeschlagen. Der mögliche Vorteil bei der Betrachtung dieses Peptids im Vergleich mit anderen bereits etablierten Markern zum Nachweis eines kurzfristigen Alkoholkonsums liegt in der für den Nachweis benötigten geringen Materialmenge, welche bei der Bestimmung mittels HPLC/TOF-MS 80μg Hämoglobin betrug, was etwa der Hämoglobinmenge entspricht, die in etwa 2,5 Millionen Erythrozyten, entsprechend 0,6 μl Blut enthalten ist. Denkbar ist dadurch die Bestimmung in Blutspuren, aus denen ansonsten kein Nachweis von Ethanol oder anderer Marker eines Alkoholkonsums möglich wäre, z.B. aus getrockneten Blutspuren.
Activation of Mitochondrial complex II-dependent respiration is beneficial for α-Synucleinopathies
(2015)
Parkinson’s disease and dementia with Lewy bodies are major challenges in research and clinical medicine world-wide and contribute to the most common neurodegenerative disorders. Previously, specific mitochondrial polymorphisms have been found to enhance clearance of amyloid-β from the brain of APP-transgenic mice leading to beneficial clinical outcome. It has been discussed whether specific mitochondrial alterations contribute to disease progression or even prevent toxic peptide deposition, as seen in many neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we investigated α-synuclein-transgenic C57BL/6J mice with the A30P mutation, and a novel A30P C57BL/6J mouse model with three mitochondrial DNA polymorphisms in the ND3, COX3 and mtRNAArg genes, as found in the inbred NOD/LtJ mouse strain. We were able to detect that the new model has increased mitochondrial complex II-respiration which occurs in parallel to neuronal loss and improved motor performance, although it exhibits higher amounts of high molecular weight species of α-synuclein. High molecular weight aggregates of different peptides are controversially discussed in the light of neurodegeneration. A favourable hypothesis states that high molecular weight species are protective and of minor importance for the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders as compared to the extreme neurotoxic monomers and oligomers. Summarising, our results point to a potentially protective and beneficial effect of specific mitochondrial polymorphisms which cause improved mitochondrial complex II-respiration in α-synucleinopathies, an effect that could be exploited further for pharmaceutical interventions.
Rho-family GTPases like RhoA and Rac-1 are potent regulators of cellular signaling that control gene expression, migration and inflammation. Activation of Rho-GTPases has been linked to podocyte dysfunction, a feature of chronic kidney diseases (CKD). We investigated the effect of Rac-1 and Rho kinase (ROCK) inhibition on progressive renal failure in mice and studied the underlying mechanisms in podocytes. SV129 mice were subjected to 5/6-nephrectomy which resulted in arterial hypertension and albuminuria. Subgroups of animals were treated with the Rac-1 inhibitor EHT1846, the ROCK inhibitor SAR407899 and the ACE inhibitor Ramipril. Only Ramipril reduced hypertension. In contrast, all inhibitors markedly attenuated albumin excretion as well as glomerular and tubulo-interstitial damage. The combination of SAR407899 and Ramipril was more effective in preventing albuminuria than Ramipril alone. To study the involved mechanisms, podocytes were cultured from SV129 mice and exposed to static stretch in the Flexcell device. This activated RhoA and Rac-1 and led via TGFβ to apoptosis and a switch of the cells into a more mesenchymal phenotype, as evident from loss of WT-1 and nephrin and induction of α-SMA and fibronectin expression. Rac-1 and ROCK inhibition as well as blockade of TGFβ dramatically attenuated all these responses. This suggests that Rac-1 and RhoA are mediators of podocyte dysfunction in CKD. Inhibition of Rho-GTPases may be a novel approach for the treatment of CKD.
Als zellulärer Sensor für Gallensäuren und als Regulator zahlreicher metabolischer und inflamma-torischer Gene stellt der nukleäre Farnesoid X Rezeptor (FXR) ein vielversprechendes neues Wirkstofftarget dar. Die Aktivierung von FXR mit natürlichen oder synthetischen Liganden führte in vitro und in vivo zu zahlreichen wünschenswerten Effekten wie gesteigerter Insulinfreisetzung, verringerter Insulinresistenz oder verbessertem Lipidprofil. Daneben stellt die Aktivierung von FXR ein Prinzip zur Behandlung von Lebererkrankungen wie nicht-alkoholischer Fettleber und primärer billiärer Zirrhose dar, das mit dem FXR-Agonisten Obeticholsäure bereits in klinischen Studien überprüft wird. Existierende synthetische FXR-Liganden sind Fettsäure- bzw. Gallensäuremimetika und imitieren die physiologischen FXR-Agonisten. Die meisten synthetischen FXR-Liganden sind jedoch aufgrund von Toxizität, geringer Selektivität oder schlechter Bioverfügbarkeit nicht zur wie-teren klinischen Entwicklung geeignet. Sie stellen außerdem vornehmlich vollagonistische FXR-Ligan-den dar, doch die klinischen Erfahrungen mit Liganden anderer nukleärer Rezeptoren wie den Peroxi-somen Proliferator-aktivierten Rezeptoren (PPAR) oder den Estrogenrezeptoren (ER) haben gezeigt, dass eine zu starke Aktivierung eines Ligand-aktivierten Transkriptionsfaktors Risiken erheblicher Nebenwirkungen bergen kann. Eine Möglichkeit, dieser Gefahr vorzubeugen, bietet die Entwicklung partialagonistischer FXR-Liganden, die den Rezeptor nur mit moderater Amplitude aktivieren.
In dieser Arbeit wurde ausgehend von der in einem virtuellen Screening identifizierten Leitstruktur 1, durch medizinisch chemische Optimierung und Studien zu den Struktur-Wirkungs-Beziehungen (SAR) ein potenter und selektiver FXR-Partialagonist entwickelt. Die drei Molekülteile der Leitstruktur 1 (azide Kopfgruppe, zentraler Anthranilamidkörper und Acylsubstituent) wurden einzeln hinsichtlich ihrer Potenz an FXR untersucht und optimiert. In der Untersuchung der SAR des Acylsubstituenten zeigten sich ein 2-Naphthoyl- und ein 4-tert-Butylbenzoylsubstituent der in 1 enthaltenen 4-Methylbenzoylgruppe überlegen. Unter Beibehaltung des 2-Naphthoylsubstituenten wurde hierauf durch selektive Methylierung bzw. Reduktion die Notwendigkeit beider Amidbindungen der Subs-tanzklasse für Aktivität an FXR nachgewiesen. Durch Erweiterung der aziden Kopfgruppe um einen zusätzlichen aromatischen Ring gelang eine weitere Potenzsteigerung, die sich durch eine Methyl-gruppe an 6-Position dieses neu eingeführten Ringes noch erhöhen ließe. Andere Substituenten am aromatischen Ring der Kopfgruppe führten dagegen an keiner Position zu einer Aktivitätsverbes-serung. Der Austausch der freien Carbonsäure durch metabolisch stabilere Bioisostere wie ein Methylketon oder ein Nitril stellte sich als ohne Aktivitätsverlust möglich heraus, wobei das Tetrazol als klassisches Carbonsäurebioisoster eine Ausnahme mit geringerer Potenz bildete. Die entscheiden-de Steigerung der Aktivität der Acylanthranilamide an FXR resultierte aus der Einführung eines zusätzlichen Substituenten in 4-Position des zentralen aromatischen Ringes, wobei eine Methoxy-gruppe zur größten Potenz führte. Das resultierende Anthranilamid 2 stellt einen hochpotenten FXR-Partialagonisten mit einem EC50-Wert von 8±3 nM in einem flFXR-Reportergenassay bei 18±1% Maximalaktivierung dar und ist der Leitstruktur somit um mehr als einen Faktor 1000 überlegen.
Die optimierte Verbindung 2 wurde aufgrund ihrer großen Potenz ausführlich in vitro pharma-kologisch charakterisiert. Dabei stellte sich die Substanz als metabolisch sehr stabil, moderat löslich in Wasser und gemessen an ihrer hohen Aktivität an FXR als wenig toxisch heraus. Darüber hinaus er-wies sich 2 als selektiv für FXR über den membranständigen G-Protein-gekoppelten Gallen-säurerezeptor TGR5 (Faktor >1000) sowie über die nukleären Rezeptoren PPARα (>1000), PPARγ (~375) und PPARδ (>1000). Bei der Quantifizierung seiner Effekte auf die FXR-Targetgene SHP, CYP7A1, BSEP, OSTα und IBABP durch qRT-PCR übte 2 im Bereich 0,1 µM bis 10 µM einen konzen-trationsunabhängigen partialagonistischen Effekt von etwa 40% des Effektes des physiologischen FXR-Agonisten Chenodeoxycholsäure (CDCA) aus. Mit der Verbindung 2 wurde somit ein hochpotenter, selektiver und metabolisch stabiler FXR-Partialagonist entwickelt und charakterisiert, der sich für künftige in vitro und in vivo Studien zu partieller FXR-Aktivierung empfehlen kann.
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The human 5-lipoxygenase (5-LO), encoded by the ALOX5 gene, is the key enzyme in the formation of pro-inflammatory leukotrienes. ALOX5 gene transcription is strongly stimulated by calcitriol (1α, 25-dihydroxyvitamin D3) and TGFβ (transforming growth factor-β). Here, we investigated the influence of MLL (activator of transcript initiation), AF4 (activator of transcriptional elongation) as well as of the leukemogenic fusion proteins MLL-AF4 (ectopic activator of transcript initiation) and AF4-MLL (ectopic activator of transcriptional elongation) on calcitriol/TGFβ-dependent 5-LO transcript elongation. We present evidence that the AF4 complex directly interacts with the vitamin D receptor (VDR) and promotes calcitriol-dependent ALOX5 transcript elongation. Activation of transcript elongation was strongly enhanced by the AF4-MLL fusion protein but was sensitive to Flavopiridol. By contrast, MLL-AF4 displayed no effect on transcriptional elongation. Furthermore, HDAC class I inhibitors inhibited the ectopic effects caused by AF4-MLL on transcriptional elongation, suggesting that HDAC class I inhibitors are potential therapeutics for the treatment of t(4;11)(q21;q23) leukemia.
Apoptosis seems to be involved in immunosenescence associated with aging. Moreover, in lymphocytes (PBL) of patients with Alzheimer's disease, an increased susceptibility to the apoptotic pathway has been described possibly due to impaired protection of oxidative stress. Accordingly, it seemed to be of particular interest to investigate the contribution of normal aging to the susceptibility from human lymphocytes to programmed cell death. We could show that PBL from elderly individuals (>60 years) accumulate apoptosing cells to a significant higher extent in spontaneous and activation-induced cell death compared to younger controls (<35 years). Treatment with the oxidative stressor 2-deoxy-D-ribose or with agonistic-CD95-antibody pronounced this effect even more implicating a higher sensitivity to reactive oxygen species and a higher functional CD95 expression, respectively. In addition, expression of the activation markers HLA-DR and CD95 was significantly increased in CD3+-cells of aged subjects, while expression of CD25 did not seem to be affected by age. Expression of Bcl-2 was increased in aging and correlated with the number of apoptotic cells.
The relevance of physiological immune aging is of great interest with respect to determining disorders with pathologic immune function in aging individuals. In recent years, the relevance of changes in peripheral lymphocytes in age-associated neurologic diseases has become more evident. Due to the lack of immunological studies, covering more than one event after mitogenic activation, we envisaged a new concept in the present study, aiming to investigate several events, starting from T cell receptor (TCR) ligation up to T cell proliferation. In addition, we addressed the question whether changes are present in the subsets (CD4, CD8) with aging. Phosphorylation of tyrosine residues declines with increasing age in CD4+ cells. Fewer levels of CD69 positive cells after 4 h mitogenic activation, altered expression of cytokines (IL2, IFN-gamma and TNF-alpha; 22 h) and lower proliferation (72 h) were determined in aging. Moreover, it could be shown that CD8+ lymphocytes react more effectively to mitogenic stimulation with reference to CD69 expression and proliferation in both age groups (<35 and >60 years old). These data indicate that T cell activation, mediated by TCR engagement, is significantly impaired in aging and both subsets are affected. However, bypassing the TCR does not fully restore T cell function, indicating that there are more mechanisms involved than impaired signal transduction through TCR only. The results will be discussed in relation to their relevance in neurodegenerative and psychiatric disorders.