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The prevention of tau protein aggregations is a therapeutic goal for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease (AD), and hydromethylthionine (HMT) (also known as leucomethylthioninium-mesylate [LMTM]), is a potent inhibitor of tau aggregation in vitro and in vivo. In two Phase 3 clinical trials in AD, HMT had greater pharmacological activity on clinical endpoints in patients not receiving approved symptomatic treatments for AD (acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibitors and/or memantine) despite different mechanisms of action. To investigate this drug interaction in an animal model, we used tau-transgenic L1 and wild-type NMRI mice treated with rivastigmine or memantine prior to adding HMT, and measured changes in hippocampal acetylcholine (ACh) by microdialysis. HMT given alone doubled hippocampal ACh levels in both mouse lines and increased stimulated ACh release induced by exploration of the open field or by infusion of scopolamine. Rivastigmine increased ACh release in both mouse lines, whereas memantine was more active in tau-transgenic L1 mice. Importantly, our study revealed a negative interaction between HMT and symptomatic AD drugs: the HMT effect was completely eliminated in mice that had been pre-treated with either rivastigmine or memantine. Rivastigmine was found to inhibit AChE, whereas HMT and memantine had no effects on AChE or on choline acetyltransferase (ChAT). The interactions observed in this study demonstrate that HMT enhances cholinergic activity in mouse brain by a mechanism of action unrelated to AChE inhibition. Our findings establish that the drug interaction that was first observed clinically has a neuropharmacological basis and is not restricted to animals with tau aggregation pathology. Given the importance of the cholinergic system for memory function, the potential for commonly used AD drugs to interfere with the treatment effects of disease-modifying drugs needs to be taken into account in the design of clinical trials.
Glucose hypometabolism, mitochondrial dysfunction, and cholinergic deficits have been reported in early stages of Alzheimer’s disease (AD). Here, we examine these parameters in TgF344-AD rats, an Alzheimer model that carries amyloid precursor protein and presenilin-1 mutations, and of wild type F344 rats. In mitochondria isolated from rat hippocampi, we found reductions of complex I and oxidative phosphorylation in transgenic rats. Further impairments, also of complex II, were observed in aged (wild-type and transgenic) rats. Treatment with a “cocktail” containing magnesium orotate, benfotiamine, folic acid, cyanocobalamin, and cholecalciferol did not affect mitochondrial activities in wild-type rats but restored diminished activities in transgenic rats to wild-type levels. Glucose, lactate, and pyruvate levels were unchanged by age, genetic background, or treatment. Using microdialysis, we also investigated extracellular concentrations of acetylcholine that were strongly reduced in transgenic animals. Again, ACh levels in wild-type rats did not change upon treatment with nutrients, whereas the cocktail increased hippocampal acetylcholine levels under physiological stimulation. We conclude that TgF344-AD rats display a distinct mitochondrial and cholinergic dysfunction not unlike the findings in patients suffering from AD. This dysfunction can be partially corrected by the application of the “cocktail” which is particularly active in aged rats. We suggest that the TgF344-AD rat is a promising model to further investigate mitochondrial and cholinergic dysfunction and potential treatment approaches for AD.
Central cholinergic function and metabolic changes in streptozotocin‐induced rat brain injury
(2020)
As glucose hypometabolism in the brain is an early sign of Alzheimer´s dementia (AD), the diabetogenic drug streptozotocin (STZ) has been used to induce Alzheimer‐like pathology in rat brain by intracereboventricular injection (icv‐STZ). However, many details of the pathological mechanism of STZ in this AD model remain unclear. Here, we report metabolic and cholinergic effects of icv‐STZ using microdialysis in freely moving animals. We found that icv‐STZ at a dose of 3 mg/kg (2 × 1.5 mg/kg) causes overt toxicity reflected in body weight loss. Three weeks after STZ administration, histological examination revealed a high number of glial fibrillary acidic protein reactive cells in the hippocampus, accompanied by Fluoro‐Jade C‐positive cells in the CA1 region. Glucose and lactate levels in microdialysates were unchanged, but mitochondrial respiration measured ex vivo was reduced by 9%–15%. High‐affinity choline uptake, choline acetyltransferase, and acetylcholine esterase (AChE) activities in the hippocampus were reduced by 16%, 28%, and 30%, respectively. Importantly, extracellular acetylcholine (ACh) levels in the hippocampus were unchanged and responded to behavioral and pharmacological challenges. In comparison, extracellular ACh levels and cholinergic parameters in the striatum were unchanged or slightly increased. We conclude that the icv‐STZ model poorly reflects central cholinergic dysfunction, an important characteristic of dementia. The icv‐STZ model may be more aptly described as an animal model of hippocampal gliosis.