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Periplasmic Sud protein encoded by the Wolinella succinogenes catalyses the transfer of bound polysulfide-sulfur to the active site of the membrane bound polysulfide reductase. The homodimeric protein consists of 131 residues per monomer, each with one cysteine residue in the active site. Polysulfide-sulfur is covalently bound to the catalytic Cys residues of the Sud protein. In order to understand the structure-function relationship of this protein, the features of its solution structure determined by heteronuclear multidimensional NMR techniques are reported here. The first step of structure determination leads to resonance assignments using 15N/13C/2H- and 15N/13C-labeled protein. The sequential backbone and side chain resonance assignments have been successfully completed. Structure calculations were carried out using the ARIA program package. The structure is based on 2688 NOE-derived distance restraints, 68 backbone hydrogen bond restraints derived from 34 slow-exchanging backbone amide protons and 334 torsion angle restraints obtained from the TALOS program as well as 158 residual dipolar coupling restraints for the refinement of relative vector orientations. The three-dimensional structure of the Sud protein was determined with an averaged rootmean- square deviation of 0.72 Å and 1.28 Å for the backbone and heavy atoms, respectively, excluding the terminal residues. Without the poorly defined segment between residues 90-94 the average r.m.s.d. value drops down to 0.6 Å and 1.14 Å. The ensemble refined with residual dipolar coupling (rdc) restraints shows good convergence. The r.m.s.d. value for the backbone heavy atoms, excluding residues 90- 94, drops down from 0.97 to 0.66 for the rdc-refined ensemble. The relative orientation of the two monomers in the protein structures refined with residual dipolar coupling restraints are also different from those without residual dipolar coupling restraints. The structure determination of the dimeric protein has been hampered by the high molecular mass (30 kDa), severe peak degeneracy, and by the small number of experimental intermonomer NOEs (relative orientation problem of two monomers). For the resonance assignments of aliphatic side chain, many resonances were ambiguously assigned because of severe overlap of signals. The Sud dimer protein contains 17 Lys, 14 Leu and one His tag for each monomer. It complicated the resonance assignments. The conventional 3D 15N-separated TOCSY HSQC experiment failed because of the large molecular weight which results in line broadening and hence made the resonance assignments of side chains more difficult. The determined structure contains a five-stranded parallel ß-sheet enclosing a hydrophobic core, a two-stranded anti-parallel ß-sheet and seven a-helices. The dimer structure is stabilized predominantly by hydrophobic residues. Sud catalyses the transfer of the polysulfide-sulfur to cyanide, similar to rhodanese encoded by Azotobacter vinelandii (Bordo et al., 2000). The two proteins are similar in the active site environment primarily owing to the main-chain conformation of the active-site loop with the cysteine residue and with respect to the surrounding positively charged residues. The active-site loop (residues 89-95) in the Sud protein appears to be flexible, reflected by few assigned proton resonances of residues 90-94 in the active site. Despite their similarity in function and their similar structure in active site, the amino acid sequences and the folds of the two proteins are remarkably different. The negatively charged polysulfide interacts with positively charged R46, R67, and R94 and hence may be stabilized in structure. The mutation of one of the three arginines that are also conserved in rhodanese from A. vinelandii leads to a loss of sulfur-transfer activity. The polysulfide chain extends from inside of Sud protein to outside, where Sud may form contacts with polysulfide reductase. These contacts provide the possible polysulfide-sulfur transfer from Sud protein to the active site of polysulfide reductase.
We report the first evidence for the formation of the "607- and 580-nm forms" in the cytochrome oxidase aa3/H2O2 reaction without the involvement of tyrosine 280. The pKa of the 607-580-nm transition is 7.5. The 607-nm form is also formed in the mixed valence cytochrome oxidase/O2 reaction in the absence of tyrosine 280. Steady-state resonance Raman characterization of the reaction products of both the wild-type and Y280H cytochrome aa3 from Paracoccus denitrificans indicate the formation of six-coordinate low spin species, and do not support, in contrast to previous reports, the formation of a porphyrin pi-cation radical. We observe three oxygen isotope-sensitive Raman bands in the oxidized wild-type aa3/H2O2 reaction at 804, 790, and 358 cm-1. The former two are assigned to the Fe(IV)[double bond]O stretching mode of the 607- and 580-nm forms, respectively. The 14 cm-1 frequency difference between the oxoferryl species is attributed to variations in the basicity of the proximal to heme a3 His-411, induced by the oxoferryl conformations of the heme a3-CuB pocket during the 607-580-nm transition. We suggest that the 804-790 cm-1 oxoferryl transition triggers distal conformational changes that are subsequently communicated to the proximal His-411 heme a3 site. The 358 cm-1 mode has been found for the first time to accumulate with the 804 cm-1 mode in the peroxide reaction. These results indicate that the mechanism of oxygen reduction must be reexamined.
Na,K-ATPase mediates net electrogenic transport by extruding three Na+ ions and importing two K+ ions across the plasma membrane during each reaction cycle. We mutated putative cation coordinating amino acids in transmembrane hairpin M5-M6 of rat Na,K-ATPase: Asp776 (Gln, Asp, Ala), Glu779 (Asp, Gln, Ala), Asp804 (Glu, Asn, Ala), and Asp808 (Glu, Asn, Ala). Electrogenic cation transport properties of these 12 mutants were analyzed in two-electrode voltage-clamp experiments on Xenopus laevis oocytes by measuring the voltage dependence of K+-stimulated stationary currents and pre-steady-state currents under electrogenic Na+/Na+ exchange conditions. Whereas mutants D804N, D804A, and D808A hardly showed any Na+/K+ pump currents, the other constructs could be classified according to the [K+] and voltage dependence of their stationary currents; mutants N776A and E779Q behaved similarly to the wild-type enzyme. Mutants E779D, E779A, D808E, and D808N had in common a decreased apparent affinity for extracellular K+. Mutants N776Q, N776D, and D804E showed large deviations from the wild-type behavior; the currents generated by mutant N776D showed weaker voltage dependence, and the current-voltage curves of mutants N776Q and D804E exhibited a negative slope. The apparent rate constants determined from transient Na+/Na+ exchange currents are rather voltage-independent and at potentials above -60 mV faster than the wild type. Thus, the characteristic voltage-dependent increase of the rate constants at hyperpolarizing potentials is almost absent in these mutants. Accordingly, dislocating the carboxamide or carboxyl group of Asn776 and Asp804, respectively, decreases the extracellular Na+ affinity.
Pin1 is a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase (PPIase) essential for cell cycle regulation. Pin1-catalyzed peptidyl-prolyl isomerization provides a key conformational switch to activate phosphorylation sites with the common phospho-Ser/Thr-Pro sequence motif. This motif is ubiquitously exploited in cellular response to a variety of signals. Pin1 is able to bind phospho-Ser/Thr-Pro-containing sequences at two different sites that compete for the same substrate. One binding site is located within the N-terminal WW domain, which is essential for protein targeting and localization. The other binding site is located in the C-terminal catalytic domain, which is structural homologous to the FK506-binding protein (FKBP) class of PPIases. A flexible linker of 12 residues connects the WW and catalytic domain. To characterize the structure and dynamics of full-length Pin1 in solution, high resolution NMR methods have been used to map the nature of interactions between the two domains of Pin1. In addition, the influence of target peptides on domain interactions has been investigated. The studies reveal a dynamic picture of the domain interactions. 15N spin relaxation data, differential chemical shift mapping, and residual dipolar coupling data indicate that Pin1 can either behave as two independent domains connected by the flexible linker or as a single intact domain with some amount of hinge bending motion depending on the sequence of the bound peptide. The functional importance of the modulation of relative domain flexibility in light of the multitude of interaction partners of Pin1 is discussed.
Membrane-bound complex I (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase) of the respiratory chain is considered the main site of mitochondrial radical formation and plays a major role in many mitochondrial pathologies. Structural information is scarce for complex I, and its molecular mechanism is not known. Recently, the 49-kDa subunit has been identified as part of the "catalytic core" conferring ubiquinone reduction by complex I. We found that the position of the 49-kDa subunit is clearly separated from the membrane part of complex I, suggesting an indirect mechanism of proton translocation. This contradicts all hypothetical mechanisms discussed in the field that link proton translocation directly to redox events and suggests an indirect mechanism of proton pumping by redox-driven conformational energy transfer.
Cardiolipin stabilized supercomplexes of Saccharomyces cerevisiae respiratory chain complexes III and IV (ubiquinol:cytochrome c oxidoreductase and cytochrome c oxidase, respectively), but was not essential for their formation in the inner mitochondrial membrane because they were found also in a cardiolipin-deficient strain. Reconstitution with cardiolipin largely restored wild-type stability. The putative interface of complexes III and IV comprises transmembrane helices of cytochromes b and c1 and tightly bound cardiolipin. Subunits Rip1p, Qcr6p, Qcr9p, Qcr10p, Cox8p, Cox12p, and Cox13p and cytochrome c were not essential for the assembly of supercomplexes; and in the absence of Qcr6p, the formation of supercomplexes was even promoted. An additional marked effect of cardiolipin concerns cytochrome c oxidase. We show that a cardiolipin-deficient strain harbored almost inactive resting cytochrome c oxidase in the membrane. Transition to the fully active pulsed state occurred on a minute time scale.
The endothelin B receptor belongs to the rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptors family. It plays an important role in vasodilatation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. During the course of this work, the production of recombinant human ETB receptor in yeast, insect and mammalian cells was evaluated. A number of different receptor constructs for production in the yeast P. pastoris was prepared. Various affinity tags were appended to the receptor N-and C-termini to enable receptor detection and purification. The clone pPIC9KFlagHisETBBio, with an expression level of 60 pmol/mg, yielded the highest amount of active receptor (1.2 mg of receptor per liter of shaking culture). The expression level of the same clone in fermentor culture was 17 pmol/mg, and from a 10L fermentor it was possible to obtain 3 kg of cells that contained 20-39 mg of the receptor. For receptor production in insect cells, Sf9 (S. frugiperda) suspension cells were infected with the recombinant baculovirus pVlMelFlagHisETBBio. The peak of receptor production was reached at 66 h post infection, and radioligand binding assays on insect cell membranes showed 30 pmoL of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Subsequently, the efficiency of different detergents in solubilizing the active receptor was evaluated. N-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside (LM), lauryl-sucrose and digitonine/cholate performed best, and LM was chosen for further work. The ETB receptor was produced in mammalian cells using the Semliki Forest Virus expression system. Radioligand binding assays on membranes from CHO cells infected with the recombinant virus pSFV3CAPETBHis showed 7 pmol of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Since the receptor yield from mammalian cells was much lower than in yeast and insect cells, this system was not used for further large-scale receptor production. After production in yeast and insect cells, the ETB receptor was saturated with its ligand, endothelin-1, in order to stabilize its native form. The receptor was subsequently solubilized with n-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside and subjected to purification on various affinity matrices. Two-step affinity purification via Ni2+-NTA and monomeric avidin proved the most efficient way to purify milligram amounts of the receptor. The purity of the receptor preparation after this procedure was over 95%, as judged from silver stained gels. However, the tendency of the ETB receptor produced in yeast to form aggregates was a constant problem. Attempts were made to stabilize the active, monomeric form of the receptor by testing a variety of different buffer conditions, but further efforts in this direction will be necessary in order to solve the aggregation problem. In contrast to preparations from yeast, the purification of the ETB receptor produced in insect cells yielded homogeneous receptor preparations, as shown by gel filtration analysis. This work has demonstrated that the amounts of receptor expressed in yeast and insect cells and the final yield of receptor, isolated by purification, represent a good basis for beginning 3D and continuing 2D crystallization trials.
A new experimental setup, for pump-probe fs DFWM measurements, which is based on a femtosecond laser system, has been constructed. It allows for the investigation of molecular species in the gas phase at different temperatures, from ~30 K in a seeded supersonic jet up to ~500 K in a heat-pipe oven. In comparison to other RCS methods the employed fs DFWM technique is less complicated and gives much higher signal-to-noise ratio [BFZ86, FeZ95a, CKS89, CCH90, HCF91, WRM02, Rie02]. A general computer code for the simulation of fs DFWM spectra of nonrigid asymmetric top molecules has been developed. This new DFWM code in combination with a non-linear fitting routine allows one to determine rotational and centrifugal distortion constants and obtain information on the polarizability tensor components from the experimental spectra. Fs DFWM spectroscopy was successfully applied to the medium-sized molecules benzene and benzene-d6 in a gas cell and in a supersonic jet. The spectrum from a seeded expansion has been measured up to delay time of 3.9 ns (restricted by the length of the delay stage) with excellent signal-to-noise ratio (102-103). In that way 87 and 72 J-type transients have been recorded for benzene and benzene-d6, correspondingly. A relative accuracy on the order of 10-5 has been achieved for the rotational constant. From the room temperature experiments, precise values of centrifugal distortion constants DJ and DJK have been extracted. The literature data for cyclohexane have been revised and a new precise rotational constant B0 has been obtained, which is (+5.5 MHz) shifted from the one reported in the former Raman investigation by Peters et al. [PWW73]. Additionally, high-level ab initio calculations of cyclohexane have been carried out using a large number of basis sets at several levels of theory. In particular, the vibrational averaging effects have been examined in order to critically compare the experimentally determined and theoretically evaluated rotational constants. The contribution of highly symmetric vibrational modes to vibrational averaging effects was clarified. More structural information could be obtained from fs DFWM measurements of asymmetric top species, since different type of rotational recurrences can appear, and all three rotational constants (A, B, C) can be extracted. On the other hand the analysis of the asymmetric top spectra is no longer trivial. In fact the simple formula for rotational recurrence periods of symmetric top species (Tab. 2.1) can not be applied to asymmetric top molecules. Thus, in order to extract high-resolution data for asymmetric species, a complete fitting of the experimental spectra is necessary. The fs DFWM and (1+2') PPI method have been applied to the asymmetric top molecules pyridine in the ground (S0) and pDFB in the S0 and electronically excited (S1) states. By fitting the measured fs DFWM spectra the rotational and centrifugal distortion constants have been extracted with good precision and the value of the parametrized polarizability angle of pDFB was obtained. In this work, the first application of fs DFWM spectroscopy to a molecular cluster has been reported. Also, the chemical equilibrium between monomeric and dimeric species was studied. In particular formic and acetic acid have been investigated in a gas cell and in a supersonic expansion. Many spectral features have been observed and analized in the fs DFWM spectrum of formic acid vapor in a gas cell at room temperature. Most of them were attributed to rotational recurrences of the formic acid monomer, but also spectral feature originating from the formic acid dimer of O-H×××O/O×××H-O type have been detected and analyzed. From the fitted simulation, the rotational and centrifugal distortion constants, and parametrized polarizability angle were extracted for the dimeric structure of O-H×××O/O×××HO type. With the assumption of unperturbed monomers a center-of-mass distance of R = 2.990 ± 0.001 Å for the monomers within the dimer has been calculated from the spectroscopic results. This distance is 0.028 Å smaller than that reported from electron diffraction [ABM69]. Thus, the centers-of-mass distance was assigned as the main point of disagreement between results of fs DFWM and electron diffraction experiments. In contrast to formic acid, acetic acid shows strong recurrences from dimeric species even in the fs DFWM spectra at room temperature. This is explained in terms of different symmetry of the moments-of-inertia tensor, which modulates the intensity of RRs (the fs DFWM signal is in general stronger from symmetric species). Due to the symmetric nature of the acetic acid dimer, only the sum (B+C) of the rotational constants has been extracted. The changes of geometrical parameters upon dimer formation have been analyzed for, both, formic and acetic acid. A heat-pipe oven has been used in order to overcome the main drawback of fs DFWM spectroscopy – the square dependence of the signal intensity on the sample number density. Two-ring molecules (cyclohexylbenzene, para-cyclohexylaniline and nicotine) with low vapor pressure (<0.1 mbar) at room temperature have been investigated. From the analysis of the experimental and ab-initio results for CHB and pCHA a nearly perpendicular conformation of the aromatic vs. cyclohexane ring for both system is inferred. The enlargement of the benzene ring of CHB in the electronically excited state (S1) has been found to cause the smaller rotational constants in S1. This conclusion has been drawn from the comparison of the ground and electronically excited state experimental rotational constants in combination with ab-initio calculations. The extraction of precise structural information for nicotine was not possible due to it weak fs DFWM signal. However, the fact that fs DFWM technique can be applied to conformational analysis of molecular species in an equilibrium mixture opens other applications for this kind of spectroscopy. In general the results obtained in this work show that the fs DFWM technique, being an experimental implementation of RCS, provides one with an important tool for structural analysis of molecular species in the gas phase in particular for the species to which microwave spectroscopy can not be applied. It gives spectra with excellent signal-to-noise ratio even at low number density samples expanded in a seeded supersonic jet. It provides an alternative and innovative approach towards rotational Raman spectroscopy of large polyatomic molecules applicable under various experimental conditions (broad temperature and pressure range). With the introduction of femtosecond (10-15s) laser pulses (usually picosecond (10-12s) laser pulses were used in RCS) an improvement in time-resolution and therefore in precision for the rotational constants by more than one order of magnitude has been achieved. Molecular systems in the ground electronic state without permanent dipole moment and chromophore can be studied with high precision, providing thereby molecular benchmark systems for the electronic structure theory. As has been shown, the study of molecular clusters by fs DFWM spectroscopy is possible, but its potential are restricted by the square dependence of the fs DFWM signal from the sample number density, which is even more important for supersonic jet expansions. Here, the application of near-resonant and resonant FWM schemes should help in order to compensate for the low sample concentration. With the introduction of the heat pipe oven for fs DFWM experiments, the investigation of large nonvolatile molecules under equilibrium conditions is possible now. In our laboratory the first results on the structural analysis of different conformers of pyrrolidine in the gas phase have been obtained [MaR04]. This method can have even more prospects for the structural investigations of large molecular species in combination with new non-thermal gas phase sources for nonvolatile molecules, like laser desorption [CTL89], laser oblation [MHL83], electrospray [FMM90], laser induced liquid beam ion desorption [KAB96, Sob00] etc. A very recent application of the fs DFWM technique is the investigation of the influence of strong laser fields on molecular gas phase sample, which could range from active alignment [PPB03] over molecular deformation to field ionization [CSD03]. In regards to future development in fs DFWM spectroscopy for more complex molecules one has to take into account, how large amplitude motions such as the van der Waals vibrations or internal rotation (see section 6.4.2) affect the rotational coherences. In any case, femtosecond Degenerate Four-Wave Mixing as experimental implementation of Rotational Coherence Spectroscopy can be considered as an innovative, developing, and powerful method for the structural investigation of the molecular species, which are hard to study by classical frequency-resolved spectroscopy [FeZ95a, Dan01, Rie02].
In dieser Arbeit werden Untersuchungen über die Anwendbarkeit von vier Methoden zur selektiven Einführung von Radikalen in DNA vorgestellt. Hierzu wurde die EPR-Spektroskopie (Elektronen-paramagnetische Resonanz) benutzt. Die selektive Einführung und Erzeugung von Radikalen in DNA ist nötig, um J-Kopplungen in DNA zu untersuchen. Vor dem Fernziel der Bestimmung der Austauschkopplungskonstanten J in biradikalischer DNA und deren Korrelation mit der charge-transfer-Geschwindigkeitskonstanten kCT stellen diese Untersuchungen einen wichtigen Ausgangspunkt dar. Stabile aromatische Nitroxide. Simulationen von Raumtemperatur-CW-X-Band-EPRSpektren fünf verschiedener aromatischer Nitroxide, welche potentielle DNA-Interkalatoren sind, wurden durchgeführt. Die aromatischen Nitroxide zeigen aufgelöste Hyperfeinkopplungen, welche zu dem Schluss führen, dass die Spindichte in hohem Maße delokalisiert ist, was die Verwendung dieser Verbindungen zur Messung von J-Kopplungen in biradikalischer DNA erlaubt. Transiente Guanin-Radikale. Transiente Guanin-Radikale werden in DNA selektiv durch die Flash-Quench-Technik erzeugt, bei der optisch anregbare Ruthenium-Interkalatoren verwendet werden. Transiente Thymyl-Radikale aus UV-bestrahltem 4'-Pivaloyl-Thymidin. Es werden photoinduzierte Prozesse untersucht, welche durch Bestrahlung von Thymin-Nukleosiden, die an der 4’-Position die optisch spaltbare Pivaloyl-Gruppe tragen, erzeugt werden. Dieses Nukleosid wurde speziell dafür entworfen, um Elektronenlöcher in DNA zu injizieren. In dieser Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass diese Verbindung benutzt werden kann, um selektiv eine Thymin-Base zu reduzieren. Transiente Thymyl-Radikale erzeugt durch ein neuartig modifiziertes Thymin nach UV-Bestrahlung. Photoinduzierte Prozesse, welche durch Bestrahlung eines ähnlichen Thymidin-Nukleosids erzeugt wurden, werden hier untersucht. Dieses Thymidin- Nukleosid wurde modifiziert, indem die optisch spaltbare Pivaloyl-Gruppe an eine Seitenkette angehängt wurde, welche an der C6-Position der Thymin-Base sitzt. Die Thymin-Base wurde speziell dafür entworfen, um Elektronen in DNA zu injizieren. In dieser Arbeit wurde bestätigt, dass ein Überschuss-Elektron selektiv auf eine Thymin-Base transferiert werden kann.
In the present study possible sources and pathways of the gasoline additive methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) in the aquatic environment in Germany were investigated. The objective of the present study was to clarify some of the questions raised by a previous study on the MTBE situation in Germany. In the USA and Europe 12 million t and 3 million t of MTBE, respectively, are used as gasoline additive. The detection of MTBE in the aquatic environment and the potential risk for drinking water resources led to a phase-out of MTBE as gasoline additive in single states of the USA. Meanwhile there is also an ongoing discussion about the substitution of MTBE in Europe and Germany. The annual usage of MTBE in Germany is about 600,000 t. However, compared to the USA, significant less data exists on the occurrence of MTBE in the aquatic environment in Europe. Because of its physico-chemical properties, MTBE readily vaporizes from gasoline, is water soluble, adsorbs only weakly to the underground matrix and is largely persistent to biological degradation. The toxicity of MTBE remains to be completely investigated, but MTBE in drinking water has low taste- and odor thresholds of 20-40 microgram/L. The present study was conducted by collecting water samples and analyzing them for their MTBE concentrations through a combination of headspace-solid phase microextraction (HS-SPME) and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The detection limit was 10 ng/L. The method was successfully tested in the framework of an interlaboratory study and showed recoveries of reference values of 89% (74 ng/L) and 104% (256 ng/L). The relative standard deviations were 12% and 6%. The investigation of 83 water samples from 50 community water systems (CWSs) in Germany revealed a detection frequency of 40% and a concentration range of 17-712 ng/L. The detection of MTBE in the drinking water samples could be explained by a groundwater pollution and the pathway river - riverbank filtration - waterworks. Rivers are important drinking water sources. MTBE is emitted into rivers through a variety of sources. In the present study, potential point sources were investigated, i.e. MTBE production sites/refineries/tank farms and groundwater pollutions. For this purpose, the spatial distribution of MTBE in three German rivers with the named potential emission sources located close to the rivers was investigated by analyzing 49 corresponding river water samples. The influence of the potential emission sources groundwater pollution and refinery/tank farm was successfully demonstrated in certain parts of the River Saale and the River Rhine. Increasing MTBE concentrations from 24 ng/L to 379 ng/L and from 73 ng/L to 5 microgram/L, respectively, could be observed in the parts investigated in these two rivers. The identification of such emission sources is important for future modeling. Further sources of MTBE emission into surface water are industrial (non-petrochemical) and municipal sewage plant effluents. In the present study long-term monitoring of water from the River Main (n=67 samples), precipitation (n=89) and industrial (n=34) and municipal sewage plant effluents (n=66) was conducted. The comparison of the data sets revealed that maximum MTBE concentrations in the River Main of up to 1 microgram/L were most possibly due to single industrial effluents with MTBE concentrations of up to 28 microgram/L (measured in this study). The average MTBE content of 66 ng/L in the River Main most probably originated from municipal sewage plant effluents and further industrial effluents. Background concentrations of <30 ng/L could be related to the direct atmospheric input via precipitation. A certain aspect of the atmospheric MTBE input is represented by the input of MTBE into river water or groundwater through snow. In the present study 43 snow samples from 13 different locations were analyzed for their MTBE content. MTBE could be detected in 65% of the urban and rural samples. The concentrations ranged from 11-613 ng/L and were higher than the concentrations in rainwater samples formerly analyzed. Furthermore, a temperature dependency and wash-out effects could be observed. The atmospheric input of MTBE was in part also visible in the analyzed groundwater samples (n=170). The detection frequencies in non-urban and urban wells were 24% and 63%, respectively. The median concentrations were 177 ng/L and 57 ng/L. In wells located in the vicinity of sites with gasoline contaminated groundwater, MTBE concentrations of up to 42 mg/L could be observed. The MTBE emission sources and the different pathways of MTBE in the aquatic environment demonstrated in the present study and other works raise the question whether the use of MTBE in a bulk product like gasoline should be continued in the future. Currently, possible substitutes like ethyl tertiary-butyl ether (ETBE) or ethanol are being discussed.
Two tetrahydroisoquinoline alkaloids were extracted from the alkaloid fraction of a methanol extract of the seeds of Calycotome Villosa Subsp. intermedia. Their structures were established as (R)-1-hydroxymethyl-7-8-dimethoxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydro- isoquinoline (1) and (S)-7-hydroxymethyl-2-3-dimethoxy-7,8,9,10-tetrahydroisoquinoline chloride (2) by spectroscopic techniques and X-ray diffraction analysis.
Global reserves of coal, oil and natural gas are diminishing; global energy requirements however are dramatically increasing. Renewable energy sources lower the threat to the earth’s climate but are not able to meet the energy consumption in major urban areas. The opinion of many experts is that the future will be dominated by hydrogen. However, this gas is essentially totally manufactured from fossil fuels and is hence of limited abundance – not to mention the hazards involved in its utilisation. - A novel energy concept involving solar and thus carbon-independent hydrogen-based technology necessitates an intermediate storage vehicle for renewable energy. This future energy carrier should be simple to manufacture, be available to an unlimited degree or at least be suitable for recycling, be able to store and transport the energy without hazards, demonstrate a high energy density and release no carbon dioxide or other climatically detrimental substances. - Silicon successfully functions as a tailor-made intermediate linking decentrally operating renewable energy-generation technology with equally decentrally organised hydrogen-based infrastructure at any location of choice. In contrast to oil and in particular hydrogen, the transport and storage of silicon are free from potential hazards and require a simple infrastructure similar to that needed for coal.
The detailed mechanism of the 20 S proteasome from Thermoplasma acidophilum is unknown. Substrates are degraded processively to small fragments without the release of intermediates, but the basis for this unique degradation mode remains obscure. The proteasome is a molecular machine, but how the different nanocompartments interplay and whether more than one substrate can be treated simultaneously has not been elucidated yet. To address these questions we had to disable the functionality of one aperture in order to dissect whether the other pore can compensate for the loss. As it is challenging to introduce mutations solely around one pore aperture of the highly symmetrical construct, we chose a novel approach by unique orientation of the proteasome at interfaces. For this purpose we purified recombinant 20 S proteasomes, where hexahistidine tags were fused either around the entrances or at the sides. According to electron microscopic studies we immobilized these constructs uniformly either end-on or side-on at metal-chelating interfaces (lipid vesicles, lipid monolayers and self-assembled thiol monolayers). Degradation of small fluorogenic peptides and large proteins like casein was analyzed. Small substrates were degraded with comparable activity by free and immobilized proteasomes, irrespective of their orientation. Thus it can be assumed that peptides can pass the sealed entrance of the 'dead-end' proteasome. However, larger substrates like fluorescently labeled casein were processed near the temperature optimum by side-on immobilized and soluble proteasomes with threefold activity compared to end-on immobilized proteasomes. Hence it can be concluded that one pore is sufficient for substrate entry and product release. In other words, the pore and antechamber can fulfil a triple function in the import and unwinding of substrates and the egress of products. With means of surface plasmon resonance the exact substrate/proteasome stoichiometry could be determined to ~1 for 'dead-end' proteasomes and ~2 for side-on immobilized (active and inactive) proteasomes. Most importantly, a fit with the Hill equation revealed positive cooperativity for side-on immobilized (Hill coefficient ~2) in contrast to end-on immobilized proteasomes (Hill coefficient ~1). Thus in case of soluble proteasomes two substrates bind presumably in opposite antechambers with positive cooperativity. The off-rate of casein as substrate is twofold for the active side-on immobilized proteasome in comparison to the end-on immobilized proteasome. The exact 2:1 stoichiometry of the off-rates equals the ratio of exit pathways amenable in case of side-on orientated versus 'dead-end' immobilized proteasomes. Thus crevices along the cylindrical body of the 20 S proteasome seem not to participate in the egress of small products. An inactive proteasome mutant displays a concentration-dependent off-kinetic against casein. Accordingly, the off-rate of the bisubstrate:proteasome complex can be attributed around half the value of the monosubstrate:proteasome complex. Consequently, substrates exit the inactive proteasome via the route of access due to obstruction of the trans side with an entering substrate. Hence the active proteasomes have to chop substrates down to small fragments prior to release through both pores. Thus the processive degradation mode might result from positive binding cooperativity. The on-rate constants for casein suggested that substrate association represents a two-step process comprising a rate-limiting translocation step and a fast binding step. As fluorescence cross-correlation revealed that two substrates can be co-localized in the proteasome and bind successively with increasing affinity (KD,1 = 8 µM versus KD,2 = 700 nM), an allosteric transition in the proteasome can be assumed. Combining our results with the data from other research groups led to a mechanistic model for the 20 S proteasome. Accordingly, the first substrate undergoes a slow translocation step, binds in the antechamber and diffuses subsequently to the catalytic centers, where it is degraded. By switching on the catalytic activity, the pores at both termini are dilated via conformational changes. Hence entry of the second substrate into the proteasome is facilitated due to omission of the rate-determining translocation step. The second substrate is either accommodated in the antechamber before it is processed (alternating degradation) or, most probably, is directly threaded into the central cavity (simultaneous degradation). As effusing peptides compete with entering proteins for binding in the antechamber, the pores are kept in an open state. After finishing digestion the pores are closed and a new degradation cycle can be reinitiated. In summary, substrate association with the proteasome underlies an ordered alternating binding mechanism in contrast to the random mode of degradation. Thus the two-stroke engine offers the advantage of speeding up degradation without enhancing complexity.
Calcium-activated potassium channels are fundamental regulators of neuron excitability. SK channels are activated by an intracellular increase of Ca++ (such as occurs during an action potential). They have a small single channel conductance (less than 20pS) and show no voltage dependence of activation. To date, there are only a few examples of high-resolution structures of eukaryotic membrane proteins. All of them were purified from natural sources. Since no abundant natural sources of eukaryotic K+ channels are available we overexpressed rSK2 in order to produce the quantities necessary for structural analysis. Unfortunately the Pichia pastoris expression system did not yield sufficient amount of pure protein, mainly because most of the protein was retained by in the ER and was only partially soluble. Subsequently, two constructs were expressed: SK2-FCYENE (containing a specific sequence that promotes surface expression), and SK2-q-CaM a concatamer of SK2 and calmodulin. Although these proved an improvement in terms of solubilisation, little improvement was found in terms of amounts of purified material obtained. For this reason we tested the Semliki Forest virus expression system, since the protein is expressed in a mammalian system where we hoped that it would be trafficked in the same way as in vivo. Using this system it was possible to express rSK2 and solubilise it with several detergents and to achieve much better purification. However, the levels were still not sufficient for high-resolution structural studies, although sufficient for single particle electron microscopy analysis.
Die Ermittlung von Proteinstukturen mittels NMR-Spektroskopie ist ein komplexer Prozess, wobei die Resonanzfrequenzen und die Signalintensitäten den Atomen des Proteins zugeordnet werden. Zur Bestimmung der räumlichen Proteinstruktur sind folgende Schritte erforderlich: die Präparation der Probe und 15N/13C Isotopenanreicherung, Durchführung der NMR Experimente, Prozessierung der Spektren, Bestimmung der Signalresonanzen ('Peak-picking'), Zuordnung der chemischen Verschiebungen, Zuordnung der NOESY-Spektren und das Sammeln von konformationellen Strukturparametern, Strukturrechnung und Strukturverfeinerung. Aktuelle Methoden zur automatischen Strukturrechnung nutzen eine Reihe von Computeralgorithmen, welche Zuordnungen der NOESY-Spektren und die Strukturrechnung durch einen iterativen Prozess verbinden. Obwohl neue Arten von Strukturparametern wie dipolare Kopplungen, Orientierungsinformationen aus kreuzkorrelierten Relaxationsraten oder Strukturinformationen, die sich in Gegenwart paramagnetischer Zentren in Proteinen ergeben, wichtige Neuerungen für die Proteinstrukturrechnung darstellen, sind die Abstandsinformationen aus NOESY-Spektren weiterhin die wichtigste Basis für die NMR-Strukturbestimmung. Der hohe zeitliche Aufwand des 'peak-picking' in NOESY-Spektren ist hauptsächlich bedingt durch spektrale Überlagerung, Rauschsignale und Artefakte in NOESY-Spektren. Daher werden für das effizientere automatische 'Peak-picking' zuverlässige Filter benötigt, um die relevanten Signale auszuwählen. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird ein neuer Algorithmus für die automatische Proteinstrukturrechnung beschrieben, der automatisches 'Peak-picking' von NOESY-Spektren beinhaltet, die mit Hilfe von Wavelets entrauscht wurden. Der kritische Punkt dieses Algorithmus ist die Erzeugung inkrementeller Peaklisten aus NOESY-Spektren, die mit verschiedenen auf Wavelets basierenden Entrauschungsprozeduren prozessiert wurden. Mit Hilfe entrauschter NOESY-Spektren erhält man Signallisten mit verschiedenen Konfidenzbereichen, die in unterschiedlichen Schritten der kombinierten NOE-Zuordnung/Strukturrechnung eingesetzt werden. Das erste Strukturmodell beruht auf stark entrauschten Spektren, die die konservativste Signalliste mit als weitgehend sicher anzunehmenden Signalen ergeben. In späteren Stadien werden Signallisten aus weniger stark entrauschten Spektren mit einer größeren Anzahl von Signalen verwendet. Die Auswirkung der verschiedenen Entrauschungsprozeduren auf Vollständigkeit und Richtigkeit der NOESY Peaklisten wurde im Detail untersucht. Durch die Kombination von Wavelet-Entrauschung mit einem neuen Algorithmus zur Integration der Signale in Verbindung mit zusätzlichen Filtern, die die Konsistenz der Peakliste prüfen ('Network-anchoring' der Spinsysteme und Symmetrisierung der Peakliste), wird eine schnelle Konvergenz der automatischen Strukturrechnung erreicht. Der neue Algorithmus wurde in ARIA integriert, einem weit verbreiteten Computerprogramm für die automatische NOE-Zuordnung und Strukturrechnung. Der Algorithmus wurde an der Monomereinheit der Polysulfid-Schwefel-Transferase (Sud) aus Wolinella succinogenes verifiziert, deren hochaufgelöste Lösungsstruktur vorher auf konventionelle Weise bestimmt wurde. Neben der Möglichkeit zur Bestimmung von Proteinlösungsstrukturen bietet sich die NMR-Spektroskopie auch als wirkungsvolles Werkzeug zur Untersuchung von Protein-Ligand- und Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungen an. Sowohl NMR Spektren von isotopenmarkierten Proteinen, als auch die Spektren von Liganden können für das 'Screening' nach Inhibitoren benutzt werden. Im ersten Fall wird die Sensitivität der 1H- und 15N-chemischen Verschiebungen des Proteinrückgrats auf kleine geometrische oder elektrostatische Veränderungen bei der Ligandbindung als Indikator benutzt. Als 'Screening'-Verfahren, bei denen Ligandensignale beobachtet werden, stehen verschiedene Methoden zur Verfügung: Transfer-NOEs, Sättigungstransferdifferenzexperimente (STD, 'saturation transfer difference'), ePHOGSY, diffusionseditierte und NOE-basierende Methoden. Die meisten dieser Techniken können zum rationalen Design von inhibitorischen Verbindungen verwendet werden. Für die Evaluierung von Untersuchungen mit einer großen Anzahl von Inhibitoren werden effiziente Verfahren zur Mustererkennung wie etwa die PCA ('Principal Component Analysis') verwendet. Sie eignet sich zur Visualisierung von Ähnlichkeiten bzw. Unterschieden von Spektren, die mit verschiedenen Inhibitoren aufgenommen wurden. Die experimentellen Daten werden zuvor mit einer Serie von Filtern bearbeitet, die u.a. Artefakte reduzieren, die auf nur kleinen Änderungen der chemischen Verschiebungen beruhen. Der am weitesten verbreitete Filter ist das sogenannte 'bucketing', bei welchem benachbarte Punkte zu einen 'bucket' aufsummiert werden. Um typische Nachteile der 'bucketing'-Prozedur zu vermeiden, wurde in der vorliegenden Arbeit der Effekt der Wavelet-Entrauschung zur Vorbereitung der NMR-Daten für PCA am Beispiel vorhandener Serien von HSQC-Spektren von Proteinen mit verschiedenen Liganden untersucht. Die Kombination von Wavelet-Entrauschung und PCA ist am effizientesten, wenn PCA direkt auf die Wavelet-Koeffizienten angewandt wird. Durch die Abgrenzung ('thresholding') der Wavelet-Koeffizienten in einer Multiskalenanalyse wird eine komprimierte Darstellung der Daten erreicht, welche Rauschartefakte minimiert. Die Kompression ist anders als beim 'bucketing' keine 'blinde' Kompression, sondern an die Eigenschaften der Daten angepasst. Der neue Algorithmus kombiniert die Vorteile einer Datenrepresentation im Wavelet-Raum mit einer Datenvisualisierung durch PCA. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird gezeigt, dass PCA im Wavelet- Raum ein optimiertes 'clustering' erlaubt und dabei typische Artefakte eliminiert werden. Darüberhinaus beschreibt die vorliegende Arbeit eine de novo Strukturbestimmung der periplasmatischen Polysulfid-Schwefel-Transferase (Sud) aus dem anaeroben gram-negativen Bakterium Wolinella succinogenes. Das Sud-Protein ist ein polysulfidbindendes und transferierendes Enzym, das bei niedriger Polysulfidkonzentration eine schnelle Polysulfid-Schwefel-Reduktion katalysiert. Sud ist ein 30 kDa schweres Homodimer, welches keine prosthetischen Gruppen oder schwere Metallionen enthält. Jedes Monomer enhält ein Cystein, welches kovalent bis zu zehn Polysulfid-Schwefel (Sn 2-) Ionen bindet. Es wird vermutet, dass Sud die Polysulfidkette auf ein katalytischen Molybdän-Ion transferiert, welches sich im aktiven Zentrum des membranständigen Enzyms Polysulfid-Reduktase (Psr) auf dessen dem Periplasma zugewandten Seite befindet. Dabei wird eine reduktive Spaltung der Kette katalysiert. Die Lösungsstruktur des Homodimeres Sud wurde mit Hilfe heteronuklearer, mehrdimensionaler NMR-Techniken bestimmt. Die Struktur beruht auf von NOESY-Spektren abgeleiteten Distanzbeschränkungen, Rückgratwasserstoffbindungen und Torsionswinkeln, sowie auf residuellen dipolaren Kopplungen, die für die Verfeinerung der Struktur und für die relative Orientierung der Monomereinheiten wichtig waren. In den NMR Spektren der Homodimere haben alle symmetrieverwandte Kerne äquivalente magnetische Umgebungen, weshalb ihre chemischen Verschiebungen entartet sind. Die symmetrische Entartung vereinfacht das Problem der Resonanzzuordnung, da nur die Hälfte der Kerne zugeordnet werden müssen. Die NOESY-Zuordnung und die Strukturrechnung werden dadurch erschwert, dass es nicht möglich ist, zwischen den Intra-Monomer-, Inter-Monomer- und Co-Monomer- (gemischten) NOESY-Signalen zu unterscheiden. Um das Problem der Symmetrie-Entartung der NOESY-Daten zu lösen, stehen zwei Möglichkeiten zur Verfügung: (I) asymmetrische Markierungs-Experimente, um die intra- von den intermolekularen NOESY-Signalen zu unterscheiden, (II) spezielle Methoden der Strukturrechnung, die mit mehrdeutigen Distanzbeschränkungen arbeiten können. Die in dieser Arbeit vorgestellte Struktur wurde mit Hilfe der Symmetrie-ADR- ('Ambigous Distance Restraints') Methode in Kombination mit Daten von asymetrisch isotopenmarkierten Dimeren berechnet. Die Koordinaten des Sud-Dimers zusammen mit den NMR-basierten Strukturdaten wur- den in der RCSB-Proteindatenbank unter der PDB-Nummer 1QXN abgelegt. Das Sud-Protein zeigt nur wenig Homologie zur Primärsequenz anderer Proteine mit ähnlicher Funktion und bekannter dreidimensionaler Struktur. Bekannte Proteine sind die Schwefeltransferase oder das Rhodanese-Enzym, welche beide den Transfer von einem Schwefelatom eines passenden Donors auf den nukleophilen Akzeptor (z.B von Thiosulfat auf Cyanid) katalysieren. Die dreidimensionalen Strukturen dieser Proteine zeigen eine typische a=b Topologie und haben eine ähnliche Umgebung im aktiven Zentrum bezüglich der Konformation des Proteinrückgrades. Die Schleife im aktiven Zentrum umgibt das katalytische Cystein, welches in allen Rhodanese-Enzymen vorhanden ist, und scheint im Sud-Protein flexibel zu sein (fehlende Resonanzzuordnung der Aminosäuren 89-94). Das Polysulfidende ragt aus einer positiv geladenen Bindungstasche heraus (Reste: R46, R67, K90, R94), wo Sud wahrscheinlich in Kontakt mit der Polysulfidreduktase tritt. Das strukturelle Ergebnis wurde durch Mutageneseexperimente bestätigt. In diesen Experimenten konnte gezeigt werden, dass alle Aminosäurereste im aktiven Zentrum essentiell für die Schwefeltransferase-Aktivität des Sud-Proteins sind. Die Substratbindung wurde früher durch den Vergleich von [15N,1H]-TROSY-HSQC-Spektren des Sud-Proteins in An- und Abwesenheit des Polysulfidliganden untersucht. Bei der Substratbindung scheint sich die lokale Geometrie der Polysulfidbindungsstelle und der Dimerschnittstelle zu verändern. Die konformationellen Änderungen und die langsame Dynamik, hervorgerufen durch die Ligandbindung können die weitere Polysulfid-Schwefel-Aktivität auslösen. Ein zweites Polysulfid-Schwefeltransferaseprotein (Str, 40 kDa) mit einer fünffach höheren nativen Konzentration im Vergleich zu Sud wurde im Bakterienperiplasma von Wolinella succinogenes entdeckt. Es wird angenommen, dass beide Protein einen Polysulfid-Schwefel-Komplex bilden, wobei Str wässriges Polysulfid sammelt und an Sud abgibt, welches den Schwefeltransfer zum katalytischen Molybdän-Ion auf das aktive Zentrum der dem Periplasma zugewandten Seite der Polysulfidreduktase durchführt. Änderungen chemischer Verschiebungen in [15N,1H]-TROSY-HSQC-Spektren zeigen, dass ein Polysulfid-Schwefeltransfer zwischen Str und Sud stattfindet. Eine mögliche Protein-Protein-Wechselwirkungsfläche konnte bestimmt werden. In der Abwesenheit des Polysulfidsubstrates wurden keine Wechselwirkungen zwischen Sud und Str beobachtet, was die Vermutung bestätigt, dass beide Proteine nur dann miteinander wechselwirken und den Polysulfid-Schwefeltransfer ermöglichen, wenn als treibende Kraft Polysulfid präsent ist.
Nitric oxide (NO) represents a short-lived mediator that pivotally drives keratinocyte movements during cutaneous wound healing. In this study, we have identified p68 DEAD box RNA helicase (p68) from a NO-induced differential keratinocyte cDNA library. Subsequently, we have analyzed regulation of p68 by wound-associated mediators in the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT. NO, serum, growth factors and pro-inflammatory cytokines were potent inducers of p68 expression in the cells. p68 was constitutively expressed in murine skin, but rapidly down-regulated upon injury. The down-regulation appeared to be transient, as p68 protein expression increased again after the inflammatory phase of repair. However, p68 protein expression did not completely disappear during wound inflammation, as immunohistochemistry and cell fractiona tion analysis revealed a restricted localization of p68 in keratinocyte nuclei of the developing epithelium. In line, cultured human (HaCaT) and murine (PAM 212) keratinocyte cell lines showed a nuclear localization of the helicase. Moreover, confocal microscopy revealed a strong localization of p68 protein within the nucleoli of the keratinocytes. Functional analyses demonstrated that p68 strongly participates in keratinocyte proliferation and gene expression. Keratinocytes that constitutively overexpressed p68 protein were characterized by a marked increase in serum-induced proliferation and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) expression, whereas down-regulation of endogenous p68 using small interfering RNA (siRNA) markedly attenuated serum-induced proliferation and VEGF expression. Altogether, our results suggest a tightly controlled expression and nucleolar localization of p68 in keratinocytes in vitro and during skin repair in vivo that functionally contributes to keratinocyte proliferation and gene expression.
The MAM (meprin/A5-protein/PTPmu) domain is present in numerous proteins with diverse functions. PTPμ belongs to the MAM-containing subclass of protein-tyrosine phosphatases (PTP) able to promote cell-to-cell adhesion. Here we provide experimental evidence that the MAM domain is a homophilic binding site of PTPμ. We demonstrate that the MAM domain forms oligomers in solution and binds to the PTPμ ectodomain at the cell surface. The presence of two disulfide bridges in the MAM molecule was evidenced and their integrity was found to be essential for MAM homophilic interaction. Our data also indicate that PTPμ ectodomain forms oligomers and mediates the cellular adhesion, even in the absence of MAM domain homophilic binding. Reciprocally, MAM is able to interact homophilically in the absence of ectodomain trans binding. The MAM domain therefore contains independent cis and trans interaction sites and we predict that its main role is to promote lateral dimerization of PTPμ at the cell surface. This finding contributes to the understanding of the signal transduction mechanism in MAM-containing PTPs.
The transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) is a key component of the cellular immune system. As a member of the ATP-binding cassette (ABC) superfamily, TAP hydrolyzes ATP to energize the transport of peptides from the cytosol into the lumen of the endoplasmic reticulum. TAP is composed of TAP1 and TAP2, each containing a transmembrane domain and a nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Here we investigated the role of the ABC signature motif (C-loop) on the functional non-equivalence of the NBDs, which contain a canonical C-loop (LSGGQ) for TAP1 and a degenerate C-loop (LAAGQ) for TAP2. Mutation of the leucine or glycine (LSGGQ) in TAP1 fully abolished peptide transport. However, TAP complexes with equivalent mutations in TAP2 still showed residual peptide transport activity. To elucidate the origin of the asymmetry of the NBDs of TAP, we further examined TAP complexes with exchanged C-loops. Strikingly, the chimera with two canonical C-loops showed the highest transport rate whereas the chimera with two degenerate C-loops had the lowest transport rate, demonstrating that the ABC signature motifs control peptide transport efficiency. All single site mutants and chimeras showed similar activities in peptide or ATP binding, implying that these mutations affect the ATPase activity of TAP. In addition, these results prove that the serine of the C-loop is not essential for TAP function but rather coordinates, together with other residues of the C-loop, the ATP hydrolysis in both nucleotide-binding sites.
The major light-harvesting complex (LHC-II) of higher plants plays a crucial role in capturing light energy for photosynthesis and in regulating the flow of energy within the photosynthetic apparatus. Native LHC-II isolated from plant tissue consists of three isoforms, Lhcb1, Lhcb2, and Lhcb3, which form homo- and heterotrimers. All three isoforms are highly conserved among different species, suggesting distinct functional roles. We produced the three LHC-II isoforms by heterologous expression of the polypeptide in Escherichia coli and in vitro refolding with purified pigments. Although Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 are very similar in polypeptide sequence and pigment content, Lhcb3 is clearly different because it lacks an N-terminal phosphorylation site and has a higher chlorophyll a/b ratio, suggesting the absence of one chlorophyll b. Low temperature absorption and fluorescence emission spectra of the pure isoforms revealed small but significant differences in pigment organization. The oligomeric state of the pure isoforms and of their permutations was investigated by native gel electrophoresis, sucrose density gradient centrifugation, and SDS-PAGE. Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 formed trimeric complexes by themselves and with one another, but Lhcb3 was able to do so only in combination with one or both of the other isoforms. We conclude that the main role of Lhcb1 and Lhcb2 is in the adaptation of photosynthesis to different light regimes. The most likely role of Lhcb3 is as an intermediary in light energy transfer from the main Lhcb1/Lhcb2 antenna to the photosystem II core.