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Famotidine inhibits toll-like receptor 3-mediated inflammatory signaling in SARS-CoV-2 infection
(2021)
Apart from prevention using vaccinations, the management options for COVID-19 remain limited. In retrospective cohort studies, use of famotidine, a specific oral H2 receptor antagonist (antihistamine), has been associated with reduced risk of intubation and death in patients hospitalized with COVID-19. In a case series, nonhospitalized patients with COVID-19 experienced rapid symptom resolution after taking famotidine, but the molecular basis of these observations remains elusive. Here we show using biochemical, cellular, and functional assays that famotidine has no effect on viral replication or viral protease activity. However, famotidine can affect histamine-induced signaling processes in infected Caco2 cells. Specifically, famotidine treatment inhibits histamine-induced expression of Toll-like receptor 3 (TLR3) in SARS-CoV-2 infected cells and can reduce TLR3-dependent signaling processes that culminate in activation of IRF3 and the NF-κB pathway, subsequently controlling antiviral and inflammatory responses. SARS-CoV-2-infected cells treated with famotidine demonstrate reduced expression levels of the inflammatory mediators CCL-2 and IL6, drivers of the cytokine release syndrome that precipitates poor outcome for patients with COVID-19. Given that pharmacokinetic studies indicate that famotidine can reach concentrations in blood that suffice to antagonize histamine H2 receptors expressed in mast cells, neutrophils, and eosinophils, these observations explain how famotidine may contribute to the reduced histamine-induced inflammation and cytokine release, thereby improving the outcome for patients with COVID-19.
Phenytoin (PHT), valproic acid, and modern antiepileptic drugs (AEDs), eg, remacemide, loreclezole, and safinamide, are only effective within a maximum of 70%-80% of epileptic patients, and in many cases the clinical use of AEDs is restricted by their side effects. Therefore, a continuous need remains to discover innovative chemical entities for the development of active and safer AEDs. Ligands targeting central histamine H3 receptors (H3Rs) for epilepsy might be a promising therapeutic approach. To determine the potential of H3Rs ligands as new AEDs, we recently reported that no anticonvulsant effects were observed for the (S)-2-(4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)benzylamino)propanamide (1). In continuation of our research, we asked whether anticonvulsant differences in activities will be observed for its R-enantiomer, namely, (R)-2-(4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)benzylamino)propaneamide (2) and analogs thereof, in maximum electroshock (MES)-, pentylenetetrazole (PTZ)-, and strychnine (STR)-induced convulsion models in rats having PHT and valproic acid (VPA) as reference AEDs. Unlike the S-enantiomer (1), the results show that animals pretreated intraperitoneally (ip) with the R-enantiomer 2 (10 mg/kg) were moderately protected in MES and STR induced models, whereas proconvulsant effect was observed for the same ligand in PTZ-induced convulsion models. However, animals pretreated with intraperitoneal doses of 5, 10, or 15 mg/kg of structurally bulkier (R)-enantiomer (3), in which 3-piperidinopropan-1-ol in ligand 2 was replaced by (4-(3-(piperidin-1-yl)propoxy)phenyl)methanol, and its (S)-enantiomer (4) significantly and in a dose-dependent manner reduced convulsions or exhibited full protection in MES and PTZ convulsions model, respectively. Interestingly, the protective effects observed for the (R)-enantiomer (3) in MES model were significantly greater than those of the standard H3R inverse agonist/antagonist pitolisant, comparable with those observed for PHT, and reversed when rats were pretreated with the selective H3R agonist R-(α)-methyl-histamine. Comparisons of the observed antagonistic in vitro affinities among the ligands 1-6 revealed profound stereoselectivity at human H3Rs with varying preferences for this receptor subtype. Moreover, the in vivo anticonvulsant effects observed in this study for ligands 1-6 showed stereoselectivity in different convulsion models in male adult rats.
Der G-Protein-gekoppelte Histamin-H3-Rezeptor (H3R) ist einer von vier bekannten Histamin-Rezeptorsubtypen. Die Verbreitung erstreckt sich hauptsächlich auf das ZNS, wo der Rezeptor maßgeblich an der Regulation des Schlaf-Wach-Rhythmus, der Kognition, der Aufmerksamkeit und dem Ernährungsverhalten beteiligt ist. Als Autorezeptor reguliert er die Darstellung und Freisetzung von Histamin im Gehirn und moduliert darüberhinaus als Heterorezeptor auch die Konzentration anderer wichtiger Neurotransmitter. Ein Ansatz für die Entwicklung neuer Arzneistoffe bei multifaktoriellen Erkrankungen entspringt der Hybridtheorie. In dieser Arbeit wurde der Hybridansatz durch verschiedene Varianten realisiert, bei denen die jeweiligen Pharmakophore durch Überlappung oder Aneinanderkopplung verknüpft wurden. Als Grundstruktur für das H3-Pharmakophor diente das 4-(3-Piperidin-1-ylpropoxy)-phenyl-Element, als andersartige Pharmakophore dienten neben Arzneistoffen aus der Gruppe der Neuroleptika, Antidepressiva und SSRI auch solche Pharmakophore, die das Wirkprofil von H3R-Liganden durch spezifische Eigenschaften (z. B. neuroprotektiv) ergänzen können. Bei der Kopplung der Pharmakophore lag der Fokus auf der Untersuchung von Aminvariationen. Mit Hilfe des Hybridansatzes wurden in dieser Arbeit zahlreiche neue und potente Histamin-H3-Hybridliganden entwickelt. Es wurden hohe Bindungsaffinitäten im nano- bis subnanomolare Bereich erzielt und wichtige Struktur-Wirkungsbeziehungen abgeleitet. In-vitro zeigte sich eine hohe Toleranz des H3R bezüglich der heterogenen Liganden, darunter solche mit sterisch anspruchsvollen, stark basischen und sauren Gruppen.