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Synaptic vesicle (SV) recycling enables ongoing transmitter release, even during prolonged activity. SV membrane and proteins are retrieved by ultrafast endocytosis and new SVs are formed from synaptic endosomes (large vesicles—LVs). Many proteins contribute to SV recycling, e.g., endophilin, synaptojanin, dynamin and clathrin, while the site of action of these proteins (at the plasma membrane (PM) vs. at the endosomal membrane) is only partially understood. Here, we investigated the roles of endophilin A (UNC-57), endophilin-related protein (ERP-1, homologous to human endophilin B1) and of clathrin, in SV recycling at the cholinergic neuromuscular junction (NMJ) of C. elegans. erp-1 mutants exhibited reduced transmission and a progressive reduction in optogenetically evoked muscle contraction, indicative of impaired SV recycling. This was confirmed by electrophysiology, where particularly endophilin A (UNC-57), but also endophilin B (ERP-1) mutants exhibited reduced transmission. By optogenetic and electrophysiological analysis, phenotypes in the unc-57; erp-1 double mutant are largely dominated by the unc-57 mutation, arguing for partially redundant functions of endophilins A and B, but also hinting at a back-up mechanism for neuronal endocytosis. By electron microscopy (EM), we observed that unc-57 and erp-1; unc-57 double mutants showed increased numbers of synaptic endosomes of large size, assigning a role for both proteins at the endosome, because endosomal disintegration into new SVs, but not formation of endosomes were hampered. Accordingly, only low amounts of SVs were present. Also erp-1 mutants show reduced SV numbers (but no increase in LVs), thus ERP-1 contributes to SV formation. We analyzed temperature-sensitive mutants of clathrin heavy chain (chc-1), as well as erp-1; chc-1 and unc-57; chc-1 double mutants. SV recycling phenotypes were obvious from optogenetic stimulation experiments. By EM, chc-1 mutants showed formation of numerous and large endosomes, arguing that clathrin, as shown for mammalian synapses, acts at the endosome in formation of new SVs. Without endophilins, clathrin formed endosomes at the PM, while endophilins A and B compensated for the loss of clathrin at the PM, under conditions of high SV turnover.
Background: Severely injured patients experience substantial immunological stress in the aftermath of traumatic insult, which often results in systemic immune dysregulation. Regulatory T cells (Treg) play a key role in the suppression of the immune response and in the maintenance of immunological homeostasis. Little is known about their presence and dynamics in blood after trauma, and nothing is known about Treg in the porcine polytrauma model. Here, we assessed different subsets of Treg in trauma patients (TP) and compared those to either healthy volunteers (HV) or data from porcine polytrauma.
Methods: Peripheral blood was withdrawn from 20 TP with injury severity score (ISS) ≥16 at the admittance to the emergency department (ED), and subsequently on day 1 and at day 3. Ten HV were included as controls (ctrl). The porcine polytrauma model consisted of a femur fracture, liver laceration, lung contusion, and hemorrhagic shock resulting in an ISS of 27. After polytrauma, the animals underwent resuscitation and surgical fracture fixation. Blood samples were withdrawn before and immediately after trauma, 24 and 72 h later. Different subsets of Treg, CD4+CD25+, CD4+CD25+FoxP3+, CD4+CD25+CD127−, and CD4+CD25+CD127−FoxP3+ were characterized by flow cytometry.
Results: Absolute cell counts of leukocytes were significantly increasing after trauma, and again decreasing in the follow-up in human and porcine samples. The proportion of human Treg in the peripheral blood of TP admitted to the ED was lower when compared to HV. Their numbers did not recover until 72 h after trauma. Comparable data were found for all subsets. The situation in the porcine trauma model was comparable with the clinical data. In porcine peripheral blood before trauma, we could identify Treg with the typical immunophenotype (CD4+CD25+CD127−), which were virtually absent immediately after trauma. Similar to the human situation, most of these cells expressed FoxP3, as assessed by intracellular FACS stain.
Conclusion: Despite minor percental differences in the recovery of Treg populations after trauma, our findings show a comparable decrease of Treg early after polytrauma, and strengthen the immunological significance of the porcine polytrauma model. Furthermore, the Treg subpopulation CD4+CD25+CD127− was characterized in porcine samples.
Nach Jakobson (1941) lassen sich in der frühen phonologischen Entwicklung zwei diskrete Phasen unterscheiden. Eine erste Phase, in der vorsprachliche Lalllaute produziert werden und keine phonologischen Kontraste gegeben sind, und eine zweite Phase, die eigentliche Sprachstufe, in der eben diese sprachsystematischen Kontrastbildungen sukzessive ausgebaut werden. Ausgehend von diesem strukturalistischen Paradigma wurden Protowörter, die im Übergang von der Lallphase zur Zielwortproduktion realisiert werden und bei einer relativ stabilen Bedeutungszuweisung keine overte Ähnlichkeit zu Zielwörtern zeigen, entweder als artikulatorische Muster analysiert oder unter der Perspektive der Generativen Grammatik als nicht-phonologische Wortformen gänzlich ignoriert. Im Gegensatz zu diesen tradierten Ansätzen wird in dieser Arbeit ein neuer Ansatz vertreten, nach dem dreidimensionale (mit segmentaler, silbischer und metrischer Ebene) phonologische Repräsentationen ab ovo in der Sprachverarbeitung aktiv sind und sich gemäß der klassischen Kompetenz-Performanz-Unterscheidung in frühen Wortproduktionen auch linguistisch analysieren lassen. Das adäquate Instrumentarium für diese Analyse können gerade nicht zielsprachliche Merkmalskontraste mit bedeutungsunterscheidender Funktion sein, sondern genuin phonologische Kontraste. Zielführend ist hier die Anwendung der Demisilbentheorie von Clements (1990), mit deren Hilfe die phonologische Komplexität von Demisilben nach Maßgabe von Sonorität berechnet werden. Wurde diese Theorie bisher erfolgreich in der Aphasiologie angewendet, wird sie hier erstmals in der Untersuchung der Protowortproduktion, appliziert. Die Daten stammen aus der im Rahmen dieser Arbeit durchgeführten Einzelfallstudie, in der die Spontansprachproduktionen von Kind J., 1;4 Jahre, jeweils einmal wöchentlich für 30 Minuten aufgezeichnet wurden. Die Aufnahmen endeten zu dem Zeitpunkt, als Kind J. keine Protowörter mehr produzierte. Wesentliche Ergebnisse einer linguistisch-qualitativen wie auch einer statistisch-quantitativen Analyse dieser Daten waren, dass Proto- und Zielwortproduktion korrelierten, d.h., bei Abnahme der Protowortproduktion die Zielwortproduktion zunahm; beide Wortklassen tendenziell aus nicht-komplexen Demisilben aufgebaut waren und Protowörter in dem Sinne als Vorläufer von Zielwörtern angesehen werden können, als dass bei ihnen nicht die zielsprachliche Bedeutungszuweisung, sondern die Etablierung phonologischer Repräsentationen maßgeblich ist. Ausgehend von diesen Ergebnissen wird ein differenziertes Schalenmodell der frühen phonologischen Entwicklung vorgestellt, nach welchem der segmentale Merkmalsausbau und seine Integration in die Silbe mittels Sonorität noch vor der metrischen Betonungszuweisung stattfindet. Unter Hinzunahme der Parallelen Architektur von Jackendoff (2002) wird abschließend eine kognitiv-linguistische Definition von Protowörtern gegeben, die nicht zuletzt auch zu diagnostischen Zwecken in der sprachtherapeutischen Praxis gebraucht werden kann.
Background: The European beech is arguably the most important climax broad-leaved tree species in Central Europe, widely planted for its valuable wood. Here, we report the 542 Mb draft genome sequence of an up to 300-year-old individual (Bhaga) from an undisturbed stand in the Kellerwald-Edersee National Park in central Germany.
Findings: Using a hybrid assembly approach, Illumina reads with short- and long-insert libraries, coupled with long Pacific Biosciences reads, we obtained an assembled genome size of 542 Mb, in line with flow cytometric genome size estimation. The largest scaffold was of 1.15 Mb, the N50 length was 145 kb, and the L50 count was 983. The assembly contained 0.12% of Ns. A Benchmarking with Universal Single-Copy Orthologs (BUSCO) analysis retrieved 94% complete BUSCO genes, well in the range of other high-quality draft genomes of trees. A total of 62,012 protein-coding genes were predicted, assisted by transcriptome sequencing. In addition, we are reporting an efficient method for extracting high-molecular-weight DNA from dormant buds, by which contamination by environmental bacteria and fungi was kept at a minimum.
Conclusions: The assembled genome will be a valuable resource and reference for future population genomics studies on the evolution and past climate change adaptation of beech and will be helpful for identifying genes, e.g., involved in drought tolerance, in order to select and breed individuals to adapt forestry to climate change in Europe. A continuously updated genome browser and download page can be accessed from beechgenome.net, which will include future genome versions of the reference individual Bhaga, as new sequencing approaches develop.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are required for transcriptional changes during heat stress (HS) thereby playing a crucial role in the heat stress response (HSR). The target genes of Hsfs include heat shock proteins (Hsps), other Hsfs and genes involved in protection of the cell from irreversible damages due to exposure to elevated temperatures. Among 27 Hsfs in Solanum lycopersicum, HsfA1a, HsfA2 and HsfB1 constitute a functional triad which regulates important aspects of the HSR. HsfA1a is constitutively expressed and described as the master regulator of stress response and thermotolerance. Activation of HsfA1a under elevated temperatures leads to the induction of HsfA2 and HsfB1 which further stimulate the transcription of HS-responsive genes by forming highly active complexes with HsfA1a. Despite the well-established role of these three Hsfs in tomato HSR, information about functional relevance of other Hsfs is currently missing.
The heat stress inducible HsfA7 belongs alongside with HsfA2 to a phylogenetically distinct clade. Thereby the two proteins share high homology and a functional redundancy has been assumed. However, HsfA7 function and contribution to stress responses have not been investigated into detail in any plant species.
Tomato HsfA7 protein accumulates already at moderately elevated temperatures (~35°C) while HsfA2 becomes dominant at higher temperatures (>40°C). HsfA7 pre-mRNA undergoes complex and temperature-dependent alternative splicing resulting in several transcripts that encode for three protein isoforms. HsfA7-I contains a functional nuclear export signal (NES) and shows nucleocytoplasmic shuttling while HsfA7-II and HsfA7-III have a truncated NES which leads to the strong nuclear retention of the protein. Differences in the nucleocytoplasmic equilibrium have a major impact on the stability of protein isoforms, as nuclear retention is associated with increased protein turnover. Consequently, HsfA7-I shows a higher stability and can be detected even after 24 hours of stress attenuation, while HsfA7-II is rapidly degraded. The degradation of these factors is mediated by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway.
HsfA7 can physically interact with HsfA1a and HsfA3 and form co-activator (“superactivator”) complexes with a very high transcriptional activity as shown on different HS-inducible promoters. In order for the complex to be successfully transferred to the nucleus and confer its activity it needs a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS) of HsfA7. In contrast, the activator (AHA) motif of HsfA7 is not essential for its co-activator function. Interestingly, while interaction of HsfA7 with either HsfA3 or HsfA1a stabilizes HsfA7 isoforms, concomitantly this leads to an increased turnover of HsfA1a and HsfA3. In contrast, HsfA2 has a stabilizing effect on the master regulator HsfA1a.
Thus, HsfA7 knockout mutants generated by CRISPR/Cas9 gene editing, show increased HsfA1a levels and a stronger induction of HS-related genes at 35°C compared to wild-type plants and HsfA2 knockout mutants. Consequently, HsfA7 knockout seedlings exhibit increased thermotolerance as shown by the enhanced hypocotyl elongation under a prolonged mild stress treatment at 35°C. In summary, these results highlight the importance of HsfA7 in regulation of cellular responses at elevated temperatures. Under moderately elevated temperatures, the accumulation of HsfA7 and its subsequent interaction with HsfA1a, leads to increased turnover of the latter, thereby ensuring a milder transcriptional activation of temperature-responsive genes like Hsps. In turn, in response to further elevated temperatures, HsfA2 becomes the dominant stress-induced Hsf. HsfA2 forms co-activator complexes with HsfA1a which in contrast to HsfA7, allows the stabilization of the master regulator, leading to the stronger expression of HS-responsive genes required for survival. Thereby, this study uncovers a new regulatory mechanism, where the temperature-dependent competitive interaction of HsfA2 and HsfA7 with HsfA1a control the fate of the master regulator and consequently the activity of temperature-responsive networks.
Widespread persistent inactivity makes continued efforts in physical activity promotion a persistent challenge. The precise content of physical activity recommendations is not broadly known, and there are concerns that the general messaging of the guidelines, including the recommendations to perform at least 150 min of at least moderate intensity physical activity per week might seem unattainable for and even actually discourage currently inactive people. Here we show that there are a myriad of ways of being physically active, and provide (in part) out-of-the-box examples of evidence based, pragmatic, easily accessible physical activity regimes below 150 min and/or with lower than moderate intensity that yield meaningful health benefits for currently inactive people.
Most of the elements heavier than iron are produced through neutron capture reactions in the s- and r -process. The overall path of the s-process is well understood and can be accurately reproduced in network simulations. However, there are still some neutron capture reactions of unstable nuclei involved in the s-process, which were not yet measured due to the difficulty in producing suitable targets. In those cases, theoretical models have to be used to estimate the missing cross section.
One example is the branching point nucleus 86Rb, whose neutron capture cross section cannot be directly measured due to its short half life of 18.86 days. It is, however, also possible to measure its inverse, the 87Rb(g,n) reaction in order to obtain the 86Rb(n,g) cross section through the principle of detailed balance.
Natural rubidium was irradiated with a quasi-monoenergetic photon beam in the energy range between 10.7 MeV and 16 MeV in order to investigate the photo-dissociation cross section of 87Rb. The results are presented in this thesis. Not only the total cross section of 87Rb(g,n), but also the partial production cross section of the ground and isomeric state of 84Rb through the 85Rb(g,n) reaction was measured.
Not all isotopes can be reached via neutron capture reaction, and are therefore bypassed by the s- and r -process. These 35 proton-rich isotopes are called p-nuclei and are produced in the γ-process by a chain of photo-disintegration reactions in Type II supernovae. Network calculations of Type II supernova show that the γ-process can explain the production of most p-nuclei, but some – especially 92/94Mo and 96/98Ru – are heavily underproduced. While this could be the result of deficiencies in the corresponding stellar models or insufficient knowledge of the involved reaction rates, it is also possible that the missing p-nuclei are synthesized in other production scenarios.
An alternative scenario for 92Mo is the production via a chain of proton capture reactions in Type Ia supernovae. One important reaction in this chain is the 90Zr(p,g) reaction. The reaction cross section was already measured several times, but the results were inconclusive. In the present work, the 90 Zr(p,g) reaction was measured using the in-beam gamma-ray spectroscopy technique and the discrepancies between the data sets could be largely explained.
HuR plays an important role in tumor cell survival mainly through posttranscriptional upregulation of prominent anti-apoptotic genes. In addition, HuR can inhibit the translation of pro-apoptotic factors as we could previously report for caspase-2. Here, we investigated the mechanisms of caspase-2 suppression by HuR and its contribution to chemotherapeutic drug resistance of colon carcinoma cells. In accordance with the significant drug-induced increase in cytoplasmic HuR abundance, doxorubicin and paclitaxel increased the interaction of cytoplasmic HuR with the 5ʹuntranslated region (5ʹUTR) of caspase-2 as shown by RNA pull down assay. Experiments with bicistronic reporter genes furthermore indicate the presence of an internal ribosome entry site (IRES) within the caspase-2-5ʹUTR. Luciferase activity was suppressed either by chemotherapeutic drugs or ectopic expression of HuR. IRES-driven luciferase activity was significantly increased upon siRNA-mediated knockdown of HuR implicating an inhibitory effect of HuR on caspase-2 translation which is further reinforced by chemotherapeutic drugs. Comparison of RNA-binding affinities of recombinant HuR to two fragments of the caspase-2-5ʹUTR by EMSA revealed a critical HuR-binding site residing between nucleotides 111 and 241 of caspase-2-5ʹUTR. Mapping of critical RNA binding domains within HuR revealed that a fusion of RNA recognition motif 2 (RRM2) plus the hinge region confers a full caspase-2-5ʹUTR-binding. Functionally, knockdown of HuR significantly increased the sensitivity of colon cancer cells to drug-induced apoptosis. Importantly, the apoptosis sensitizing effects by HuR knockdown were rescued after silencing of caspase-2. The negative caspase-2 regulation by HuR offers a novel therapeutic target for sensitizing colon carcinoma cells to drug-induced apoptosis.
Background: The aim of this study was to investigate the acceptance and assessment of work shadowing carried out by students and dentists in dental practices. Furthermore, the extent to which students perceive an improvement in their specialised, communication and social competencies, was to be examined.
Methods: 61 dental students in their clinical semesters at a German university participated in work shadowing placements at 27 different general dental practices. Before beginning, they received checklists of various competencies that they self-assessed using school grades (from 1 = "very good", to 6 = "failed"), which they also repeated after completion. The dentists supplemented this with their external assessments. In addition, the students were requested to fill out a 54-item questionnaire and compose a freely-structured report after the work shadowing; the dentists filled out a questionnaire containing 16 items. The statistical analysis was carried out by means of the Friedman Test, including a post-hoc test (Bonferroni-Holm correction).
Results: The analysis showed a significant overall improvement in the students’ self-assessed competencies by 0.71* ± 0.43 grades. With an average of 0.33* ± 0.36, the dentists’ external assessment proved significantly higher than the self-assessment. The greatest improvements were perceived by the students in the areas of accounting (1.17* ± 0.77), practice organisation (1.05* ± 0.61) and dentist’s discussions (0.94* ±0.80) [*p < 0.05]. The students confirmed experiencing an expansion of knowledge, an improvement in their communication skills and indicated a high degree of satisfaction in regard to the dentists (school grade 1.58 ± 0.93). A maximum amount of satisfaction towards the work shadow students was demonstrated by the dentists, and this form of teaching was assessed with a school grade of 1.69 ± 0.89.
Conclusion: Both students and dental practitioners demonstrated a high level of satisfaction in regard to the work shadowing. The students felt their knowledge had increased, viewed the dentists as motivating role models and acknowledged a significant improvement in their specialised, communication and social competencies. Work shadowing in dental teaching practices presents a sensible addition to academic teaching at a university.
Immune-modulating therapy is a promising therapy for patients with cholangiocarcinoma (CCA). Microsatellite instability (MSI) might be a favorable predictor for treatment response, but comprehensive data on the prevalence of MSI in CCA are missing. The aim of the current study was to determine the prevalence of MSI in a German tertiary care hospital. Formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue samples, obtained in the study period from 2007 to 2015 from patients with CCA undergoing surgical resection with curative intention at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University hospital, were examined. All samples were investigated immunohistochemically for the presence of MSI (expression of MLH1, PMS2, MSH2, and MSH6) as well as by pentaplex polymerase chain reaction for five quasimonomorphic mononucleotide repeats (BAT-25, BAT-26, NR-21, NR-22, and NR-24). In total, 102 patients were included, presenting intrahepatic (n = 35, 34.3%), perihilar (n = 42, 41.2%), and distal CCA (n = 25, 24.5%). In the immunohistochemical analysis, no loss of expression of DNA repair enzymes was observed. In the PCR-based analysis, one out of 102 patients was found to be MSI-high and one out of 102 was found to be MSI-low. Thus, MSI seems to appear rarely in CCA in Germany. This should be considered when planning immune-modulating therapy trials for patients with CCA.
Wenn man heute nach dem ideellen Vermächtnis Aby Warburgs fragt, kommen konzeptuell aufgeladene Begriffe, oder besser gesagt Denkfiguren, wie 'Pathosformel', 'Denkraum' und 'Mnemosyne' in den Sinn. Es sind geniale Wortschöpfungen, die längst jenseits der spezifischen Warburg-Forschung Eingang in die geisteswissenschaftliche Terminologie gefunden haben. Warburg selbst nun, wäre er nach dem für seine lebenslange Forschung zentralen Axiom gefragt worden, hätte zweifellos das 'Nachleben' oder 'Fortleben' oder den 'Einfluss der Antike' genannt. Die Ergründung dieses Phänomens, von ihm immer wieder als "Problem" bezeichnet, das ihn lebenslang "kommandierte", stand nicht nur im Zentrum seiner Forschung, sie war auch das Leitmotiv der Anschaffungspolitik und Organisation seiner Bibliothek – regelrecht sein Programm.
Der Kunst- und Kulturhistoriker Aby Warburg zählt zu den Ahnherren der Bildwissenschaft, die in Frankreich, Deutschland und den USA ihre wichtigsten Vertreterinnen und Vertreter hat. Er ist sogar ihr erster Wortführer in Methode und Programm gewesen. Sein Interesse galt nicht nur Kunstwerken, sondern Bildern und ihren Wirkungen überhaupt. Er analysierte Gemälde Botticellis und Manets ebenso wie Briefmarken und Plakate. Überall fand Warburg Gesten und Gebärden, in denen tiefste Trauer oder höchster Triumph ausgedrückt waren und die Szenen mörderischer Verfolgung oder schützender Sorge zeigten. In seinem Dürer-Vortrag von 1905 fand er dafür den Begriff "Pathosformel", in der psychische Energie gebunden sei und die "archäologisch getreu" nachgewiesen werden könne. Pathosformeln wurden zum Instrument seiner kulturgeschichtlich weit ausholenden Studien. Warburg zufolge ist in Pathosformeln seit der Antike der Weg darstellbar, der "aus dem stereometrisch gestaffelt gedachten Aufstiegsraum der Seele" – wie ihn die Mystiker aller Religionen kennen – zum "unendlichen Raum" führe, den er selbst den "mathematischen und psychotechnischen Denkraum" nannte. Er hat ihn auf der dritten der programmatischen Tafeln des Bilderatlasses dargestellt. Dieser Weg war für ihn gleichbedeutend mit der Befreiung des Menschen aus Dämonenfurcht und Sternenglauben, aus Abhängigkeit und Angst. Endlich los kommen müssen wir (so Warburgs Appell) von der dämonischen Seite der heidnischen Götter, die die Rückenansicht ihrer olympischen Heiterkeit ist! In ihnen seien Logik und Magie vereint, die sich "wie Tropus und Metapher" verhielten, die "auf einem Stamme geimpfet blühten ". Warburg suchte nach dem unklassischen, weil ganz auf die Gegenwart bezogenen Nachleben der Antike in Wort und Bild.
Pünktlich zum Abschluss des 'Historischen Wörterbuchs der Philosophie' flackerte eine Kontroverse um die Beziehung zwischen seinem Begründer und ersten Herausgeber Joachim Ritter und dessen Münsteraner Lehrstuhlnachfolger Hans Blumenberg auf. Den Ausgangspunkt bildete die theoretisch-methodologische Frage der Verhältnisbestimmung von Begriff und Metapher bzw. Begriffsgeschichte und Metaphorologie, an die sich jedoch zumindest andeutungsweise auch biographisch und wissenschaftshistorisch ausgerichtete Erwägungen anschlossen.
Wie verhalten sich historische Textsemantik und bildsprachliche Semantik zueinander? Welche strukturellen Gemeinsamkeiten bzw. Unterschiede bestehen zwischen politischen Grundbegriffen und ihren Visualisierungen? Wie verändern sie sich in der 'Sattelzeit', an der Schwelle zur Moderne? Diesen Fragen versucht der folgende Essay nicht theoretisch, sondern empirisch anhand eines französischen Fallbeispiels nachzuspüren: der Ikonographie von République in der Zeit von 1789 bis 1889. Die exemplarischen Bildbelege entstammen der zeitgenössischen Gebrauchsgrafik, einem Printmedium relativ großer sozialer Reichweite, gesammelt im Fundus des Lexikons der Revolutions-Ikonographie. Begriffshistorische Vergleichsmöglichkeiten bietet u. a. das Handbuch politisch-sozialer Grundbegriffe in Frankreich.
Es geht im Folgenden darum, nach Berührungspunkten und Unterschieden zwischen Kosellecks Zugang und dem Warburgs zu fragen. Dies erfolgt in einer – selbstverständlich nur sehr ausschnitthaften, auf einige methodische Grundannahmen beschränkten – parallelen Lektüre, die Kosellecks und Warburgs Verständnis bildlicher und begrifflicher Semantiken und der Bedeutung von Epochenschwellen für deren Wandel zueinander in Beziehung setzt. Das durch die Tagung thematisierte Spannungsfeld "Bild – Begriff – Epoche" würde sich zu einer sehr viel umfassenderen und über diese beiden Autoren hinausgehenden Bestandsaufnahme eignen, um Parallelen, Bezugnahmen und Unterschiede zwischen Begriffsgeschichtsforschung und (politischer) Ikonologie, zwischen dem Projekt der Geschichtlichen Grundbegriffe und den Forschungsprogrammen an der Kulturwissenschaftlichen Bibliothek Warburg (KBW) zu untersuchen.
Koselleck has repeatedly rejected the existence of a collective memory. All memory derives from individual experiences which are not interchangeable. Any person has the right to his own memories, without which he could not live and which cannot be collectivized. Only the conditions under which they are realized and recollected may be referred to as supra-individual. For this reason it is advisable to distinguish between the primary experiences of those who have lived them as a first person and who bind them to their own memories, and the secondary experiences after the fact of those who were not present in the situation which gave rise to the immediate experience. This distinction also applies to memorials. The messages of monuments are open to a double exegesis: they evoke the unmistakable occasions that have led to death. Like primary experiences they are not interchangeable. But, even so, artistic responses to incomparable occasions repeat themselves. There is only a limited repertoire of aesthetic solutions for fixating violent death – which individually is always unique – in the memory.
Das Denken der 'neuen' Form setzt sich bei Cassirer aus der rationalen und der sinnlichen Erkenntnis zusammen. Den Formbegriff der rationalen Erkenntnis gewinnt er mithilfe der Philosophie, den der sinnlichen Erkenntnis aus der Kunst. Ist für ersteren vor allem Leibniz wichtig geworden, beruft er sich bei letzterem explizit auf Goethe. Im Folgenden werde ich versuchen, beide Erkenntnisweisen nachzuvollziehen, um die These herzuleiten, dass Cassirer keine Hierarchisierung zwischen Begriff und Bild vornimmt.
Einführung
(2018)
Warburg wirkte auch über den engeren Kreis der Kulturwissenschaftlichen Bibliothek Warburg hinaus. Mit Walter Benjamins Werk, Franz Dornseiffs Onomasiologie oder Ernst Robert Curtius' an das 'Nachleben der Antike' anknüpfender 'historischer Topik' seien nur einige der Arbeiten über Sprache genannt, die von Warburgs kunstwissenschaftlichen Ideen inspiriert waren. Insbesondere Curtius' Arbeiten – und das berührt unsere Frage nach der Epochenschwelle – sind dabei als Ansatz wahrgenommen worden, überhistorische Denkfiguren und geistesgeschichtliche Kontinuitäten gegen die Gefahr des Historismus und von Brüchen im Traditionszusammenhang aufzuzeigen und damit Warburgs 1912 in Rom verkündetes Programm aufzunehmen, durch "ikonologische Analyse", die sich durch grenzpolitische Befangenheit nicht davor abschrecken lässt, Antike, Mittelalter und Neuzeit als zusammenhängende Epoche anzusehen.
Wenn es die Aufgabe einer Ikonologie der Architektur ist, das Verstehen "des Bauwerks als Sinnträger" zu befördern, unter anderem also die Frage zu beantworten, was "den Menschen [...] diese oder jene Form bedeutet" hat, dann kann versuchsweise 'Monumentalität' ein Suchbegriff sein, der geeignet ist, der ikonologischen Bedeutung von Bauten näher auf die Spur zu kommen. Denn hier geht es um symbolische Aufladung, die etwas entstehen lässt, das Martin Warnke einmal "Bedeutungsarchitektur" nannte. Doch der Begriff ist belastet. Historisch galt Monumentalität in der Architektur schon nach dem Ersten Weltkrieg und den Exzessen des Historismus als obsolet; die Klassische Moderne zentrierte sich um ganz andere Begriffe wie den der Funktion. Monumentalität als Phänomen schien verschwunden, und der Funktionalismus brauchte keine Ikonologie. Nur so exotische Projekte wie das Neu-Delhi von Edwin Lutyens und später die unsäglichen Monumentalbauten der europäischen Diktaturen waren noch monumental. Doch plötzlich wurde an unerwarteter Stelle, nämlich aus dem Zentrum der modernen Bewegung selbst, deren Protagonisten im Lauf der 1930er Jahre aus politischen Gründen vielfach in die USA emigriert waren, und zudem zu einem auf den ersten Blick irritierenden Zeitpunkt die Diskussion neu eröffnet. Niemand Geringeres nämlich als Sigfried Giedion, der Chefideologe der Moderne, startete einen entsprechenden Vorstoß. Zusammen mit José Luis Sert und Fernand Léger verfasste er 1943 seine 'Nine Points on Monumentality'.