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Breaking tolerance to the natural human liver autoantigen cytochrome P450 2D6 by virus infection
(2009)
Autoimmune hepatitis (AIH) is a chronic liver disease of unknown etiology, characterized by a loss of tolerance against hepatocytes leading to the progressive destruction of hepatic parenchyma and cirrhosis. Clinical signs for AIH are interface hepatitis and portal plasma cell infiltration, hypergammaglobulinemia, and autoantibodies. Based on serological markers AIH is defined in subtypes. The hallmark of AIH type 2 are type 1 liver/kidney microsomal autoantibodies (LKM-1), whereas AIH type 1 is characterized by the presence of anti-nuclear (ANA) and/or anti-smooth muscular (SMA) autoantibodies. The major autoantigen recognized specifically by LKM-1 autoantibodies was identified as the 2D6 isoform of the cytochrome P450 enzyme family (CYP2D6). Not much is known about the etiology and pathogenic mechanisms of AIH so far and most animal models available result in only transient hepatic liver damage after a rather complex initiation method. It was the aim of my project to generate a novel animal model for AIH that reflects the chronic and progressive destruction of the liver characteristic for the human disease while using a defined and feasible initiating event to further analyze the pathogenic mechanisms leading to the autoimmune-mediated destruction of the liver. Therefore, mice transgenically expressing the human CYP2D6 in the liver and wild-type mice were infected with a liver-tropic adenovirus expressing the human CYP2D6 (Ad-2D6). Selftolerance to CYP2D6 was broken in Ad-2D6-infected mice, resulting in persistent autoimmune liver damage, apparent by cellular infiltration, hepatic fibrosis and necrosis. Similar to type 2 AIH patients, Ad-2D6-infected mice generated LKM-1-like antibodies recognizing the same immunodominant epitope of CYP2D6. Taken together, we could introduce a new animal model that reflects the persistent autoimmune-mediated liver damage as well as the serological marker characteristic for AIH type 2 and we could demonstrate that chronic autoimmune diseases targeting the liver can be triggered by molecular mimicry occurring in the context of a hepatotropic viral infection.
Ein zentrales Ergebnis dieser Studie war, dass viele Patienten ein hohes Maß an Lebens-qualität zeigten. Verglichen mit anderen hämatologisch-onkologischen Kollektiven lag die Lebensqualität der Patienten dieser Studie deutlich näher bei den Werten der gesunden Normalbevölkerung. Als signifikant negative Einflussfaktoren auf die verschiedenen Dimensionen der Lebensqualität zeigte sich die allogene Stammzelltransplantation und ein Alter > 55 Jahren. Stammzelltransplantierte und ältere Patienten waren nicht nur häufiger durch Begleiterkrankungen belastet, sondern auch signifikant stärker in ihrer körperlichen und Rollen-Funktion eingeschränkt. In beiden Gruppen fanden sich zudem eine signifikant stärkere Fatigue-Ausprägung und größere finanzielle Schwierigkeiten. Während die globale Lebensqualität älterer Patienten signifikant schlechter war, hatte die Stammzelltransplantation interessanterweise keinen negativen Einfluss auf die Lebensqualität. Die Lebensqualität von SZT-Patienten korreliert also anscheinend nicht zwingend mit einem schlechteren Gesundheitszustand. Der individuelle Umgang mit der Erkrankung (Coping), sowie neue Sinn- und Wertevorstellungen scheinen somit unabhängig vom Gesundheitszustand eine zentrale Rolle in der Bewertung der eigenen Lebensqualität zu spielen. Dies zeigte sich auch im gesamten Kollektiv, z.B. bei in Freitextkommentaren der Patienten. Die Erfahrung der potenziell tödlichen Erkrankung schien für viele Patienten den Blick auf die Gegenwart verändert zu haben (intensiveres Leben, kleine Ziele, stärkere Wahrnehmung von Glück, Erkennen von wichtig und unwichtig). Sehr viele Patienten waren der Meinung, dass das Verhältnis zu Freunden und Familie durch die Erkrankung an Bedeutung gewonnen habe. Als negativ wurde überwiegend die verminderte körperliche und vor allem geistige Leistungsfähigkeit genannt. Einige körperliche Einschränkungen wurden mit Spätfolgen der Leukämieerkrankung bzw. –therapie in Verbindung gebracht (z. B. Gelenknekrosen, Haarausfall). Andere Erkrankungen, wie z.B. Hypertonus, Diabetes und kardiopulmonale Erkrankungen konnten dagegen nicht im Zusammenhang mit der Erkrankung gebracht werden und waren - verglichen mit der Normalbevölkerung - auch nicht häufiger. Bei rund der Hälfte aller Patienten mit Kinderwunsch konnte dieser auch erfüllt werden. Allerdings galt dies nur für Patienten nach Chemotherapie. Patienten nach allogener Stammzelltransplantation waren nahezu alle infertil. Insgesamt zeigten die meisten Patienten trotz oft Schwerbehinderung ein hohes Maß an beruflicher Reintegration. Ein dauerhaft hoher Grad an Behinderung (> 50%) ging jedoch deutlich häufiger mit Arbeitslosigkeit oder (Früh-)Berentungen einher. Ein wichtiges Ziel für die Zukunft ist die systematische, prospektive Erfassung von Lebensqualität und medizinischen Spätfolgen bei Patienten mit akuter lymphatischer Leukämie im Rahmen der GMALL-Studien. Neben der Lebensqualität soll auch ein systematisches Nachsorgeprogramm - analog den bereits existierenden Programmen für Kinder (z. B. LESS ) entwickelt werden. Dabei sollte besonders die Gruppe der älteren Patienten > 55 Jahren, und die allogen stammzelltransplantierten Patienten berücksichtigt werden. Für prospektive Untersuchungen ist zudem eine gezielte Untersuchung der Fatigue-Symptomatik geplant. Für prospektive Studien ist es essenziell, die erhobenen Daten - insbesondere während der Therapie - zeitnah auszuwerten. So kann ein Verlauf erfasst werden und es besteht die Möglichkeit, bereits während Therapie Hilfsangebote - z. B. psychosoziale Unterstützung - anzubieten. Ebenso können die Daten zur Lebensqualität genutzt werden, um in Therapieentscheidungen - z. B. vor Transplantation - miteinbezogen zu werden. Patienten kann zudem ein realistischer Ausblick auf das Leben nach der Therapie gegeben werden.
The budget constraint requires that, eventually, consumption must adjust fully to any permanent shock to income. Intuition suggests that, knowing this, optimizing agents will fully adjust their spending immediately upon experiencing a permanent shock. However, this paper shows that if consumers are impatient and are subject to transitory as well as permanent shocks, the optimal marginal propensity to consume out of permanent shocks (the MPCP) is strictly less than 1, because buffer stock savers have a target wealth-to-permanent-income ratio; a positive shock to permanent income moves the ratio below its target, temporarily boosting saving. Keywords: Risk, Uncertainty, Consumption, Precautionary Saving, Buffer Stock Saving, Permanent Income Hypothesis.
We model the motives for residents of a country to hold foreign assets, including the precautionary motive that has been omitted from much previous literature as intractable. Our model captures many of the principal insights from the existing specialized literature on the precautionary motive, deriving a convenient formula for the economy’s target value of assets. The target is the level of assets that balances impatience, prudence, risk, intertemporal substitution, and the rate of return. We use the model to shed light on two topical questions: The “upstream” flows of capital from developing countries to advanced countries, and the long-run impact of resorbing global financial imbalances
We present a tractable model of the effects of nonfinancial risk on intertemporal choice. Our purpose is to provide a simple framework that can be adopted in fields like representative-agent macroeconomics, corporate finance, or political economy, where most modelers have chosen not to incorporate serious nonfinancial risk because available methods were too complex to yield transparent insights. Our model produces an intuitive analytical formula for target assets, and we show how to analyze transition dynamics using a familiar Ramsey-style phase diagram. Despite its starkness, our model captures most of the key implications of nonfinancial risk for intertemporal choice.
Instabile Finanzmärkte
(2009)
Die Vorstellung selbst-stabilisierender, zum Gleichgewicht tendierender Finanzmärkte, lange Zeit als Selbstverständlichkeit angesehen, ist durch die aktuelle Banken- und Kreditkrise in Frage gestellt. Trotz ausgefeilten Risikomanagements der Banken und einer an Basel II orientierten Aufsicht ist es in den Jahren 2007-2009 zu einem Zusammenbruch des Interbankenmarktes und weiter Teile der Anleihemärkte gekommen. Die hierdurch erzwungenen massiven Staatsinterventionen zur Bankenrettung sind ohne Beispiel in der modernen Wirtschaftsgeschichte. In diesem Essay suchen wir nach Ansatzpunkten einer Erklärung für die Instabilität der Finanzmärkte. Als zentrale Krisenursache sehen wir Schwächen der Informationsarchitektur, deren Aufgabe darin besteht, glaubwürdige Information für Investoren bereitzustellen. Drei Determinanten der Instabilität werden herausgestellt, erstens die Nutzung von Schuldtiteln verbunden mit hohen Verschuldungsgraden, zweitens die Handelbarkeit von Titeln verbunden mit erhöhter Risikoübernahme, sowie drittens die zunehmende Komplexität von Finanzprodukten und Finanznetzwerken verbunden mit einer Homogenisierung der Aktiva- und Risikostrukturen von Finanzinstituten. Alle drei Faktoren verstärken die Anfälligkeit des Finanzsystems und zugleich die Bedeutung der Informationsarchitektur. Hieraus lassen sich Anforderungen an eine sinnvolle Reform der Regulierung ableiten. Neben den Anreizproblemen, die Gegenstand einer weiteren Arbeit sind (Franke/Krahnen 2009), diskutieren wir hier vier Kernthemen: glaubwürdige Informationen, makroprudentielle Aufsicht, robuste Eigenkapitalstandards und eine notwendige Risikobegrenzung auf Derivatemärkten
American households have received a triple dose of bad news since the beginning of the current recession: The greatest collapse in asset values since the Great Depression, a sharp tightening in credit availability, and a large increase in unemployment risk. We present measures of the size of these shocks and discuss what a benchmark theory says about their immediate and ultimate consequences. We then provide a forecast based on a simple empirical model that captures the effects of wealth shocks and unemployment fears. Our short-term forecast calls for somewhat weaker spending, and somewhat higher saving rates, than the Consensus survey of macroeconomic forecasters. Over the longer term, our best guess is that the personal saving rate will eventually approach the levels that preceded period of financial liberalization that began in the late 1970s. Classification: C61, D11, E24
This paper analyzes the risk properties of typical asset-backed securities (ABS), like CDOs or MBS, relying on a model with both macroeconomic and idiosyncratic components. The examined properties include expected loss, loss given default, and macro factor dependencies. Using a two-dimensional loss decomposition as a new metric, the risk properties of individual ABS tranches can directly be compared to those of corporate bonds, within and across rating classes. By applying Monte Carlo Simulation, we find that the risk properties of ABS differ significantly and systematically from those of straight bonds with the same rating. In particular, loss given default, the sensitivities to macroeconomic risk, and model risk differ greatly between instruments. Our findings have implications for understanding the credit crisis and for policy making. On an economic level, our analysis suggests a new explanation for the observed rating inflation in structured finance markets during the pre-crisis period 2004-2007. On a policy level, our findings call for a termination of the 'one-size-fits-all' approach to the rating methodology for fixed income instruments, requiring an own rating methodology for structured finance instruments. JEL Classification: G21, G28 Keywords: credit risk, risk transfer, systematic risk
The seasonality of transport and mixing of air into the lowermost stratosphere (LMS) is studied using distributions of mean age of air and a mass balance approach, based on in-situ observations of SF6 and CO2 during the SPURT (Spurenstofftransport in der Tropopausenregion, trace gas transport in the tropopause region) aircraft campaigns. Combining the information of the mean age of air and the water vapour distributions we demonstrate that the tropospheric air transported into the LMS above the extratropical tropopause layer (ExTL) originates predominantly from the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). The concept of our mass balance is based on simultaneous measurements of the two passive tracers and the assumption that transport into the LMS can be described by age spectra which are superposition of two different modes. Based on this concept we conclude that the stratospheric influence on LMS composition is strongest in April with extreme values of the tropospheric fractions (alpha1) below 20% and that the strongest tropospheric signatures are found in October with alpha1 greater than 80%. Beyond the fractions, our mass balance concept allows us to calculate the associated transit times for transport of tropospheric air from the tropics into the LMS. The shortest transit times (<0.3 years) are derived for the summer, continuously increasing up to 0.8 years by the end of spring. These findings suggest that strong quasi-horizontal mixing across the weak subtropical jet from summer to mid of autumn and the considerably shorter residual transport time-scales within the lower branch of the Brewer-Dobson circulation in summer than in winter dominates the tropospheric influence in the LMS until the beginning of next year's summer.
Möglichkeiten einer wohnortnahen, gesundheitsbezogenen Bewegungsberatung für Senioren ab 65 Jahren
(2009)
Körperliche Aktivität im Alter beugt gesundheitlichen Beschwerden physischer und psychischer Art vor (vgl. u. a. Martel et al., 1999; Puggaard et al., 2000; Stathi et al., 2002; Pedersen & Saltin, 2006). Mit Blick auf die demografische Situation Deutschlands gilt es, mittels gezielter Programme möglichst viele inaktive Senioren anzusprechen, um deren Bewegungsaktivitäten auf ein empfohlenes Minimum von 30 Minuten moderater aerober körperlicher Aktivität an fünf Tagen der Woche zu steigern und somit Gesundheitsressourcen zu erhalten (vgl. Nelson et al., 2007). In den letzten Jahren wurde vor allem im englischsprachigen Raum eine Reihe von Maßnahmen zur Bewegungsförderung für Erwachsene eingeführt und ausgewertet. Barrieren für die Aufnahme von Bewegung, wie z. B. infrastrukturelle oder gesundheitliche Hindernisse, sollten abgebaut werden, die Niedrigschwelligkeit von Bewegungsangeboten spielt dabei eine bedeutende Rolle. In Kapitel 2 dieser Arbeit wurde der Forschungsstand zu theoriegeleiteten und alltagsbezogenen Beratungsinterventionen vorgestellt sowie zu Programmen, in deren Rahmen Kooperationen mit Arztpraxen entstanden sind (vgl. Jakicic et al., 1999; Marshall & Biddle, 2001; Dapp et al., 2007). Forschungslücken im Hinblick auf die Übertragbarkeit vorhandener Modelle auf Senioren in deutschen Großstädten bildeten den Ausgangspunkt, um die vorgestellten Ansätze zu verknüpfen und ein Modell der individuellen theoriegeleiteten Bewegungsberatung mit maßgeschneiderten, wohnortnahen Aktivitätsangeboten in einem interdisziplinären Team umzusetzen und zu untersuchen. Gegenstand der Studie war die Evaluation der Angebotsnutzung, der Bereitschaft zur Verhaltensänderung und in diesem Zusammenhang der Steigerung körperlicher Aktivität ebenso wie die Überprüfung möglicher Indikatoren für eine erfolgreiche Teilnahme an der Beratung. Teilnehmer der neunwöchigen Studie waren insgesamt 181 Personen über 65 Jahre aus Frankfurt am Main und Umgebung. Die Rekrutierung erfolgte über Zeitungsannoncen und Ansprache von Seniorengruppenleitern. In Prätest und Posttest wurden allgemeine Anamnesedaten, die Bereitschaft zur Verhaltensänderung (Fragebogen zum Transtheoretischen Modell (TTM); Keller, 1999), das Aktivitätsniveau (International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ); Booth, 2000) sowie das subjektive Gesundheitsempfinden (SF-12; Ware et al., 1996) und in der Interventionsgruppe auch das Interesse an einer Beratung (Eintrag in Liste) erfasst. Den Teilnehmern der Interventionsgruppe (n = 84) wurde eine Bewegungsberatung angeboten. An individuellen Gesprächen mit der Bewegungsberaterin waren 80 % der Angesprochenen interessiert, eine Übungsstunde (Schnupperstunde) besuchten 40 %. Nach Ende der Beratung wollten 23 % eine neue Aktivität im Alltag einführen. In der Interventionsgruppe ist die Bereitschaft zur Verhaltensänderung in Bezug auf körperliche Aktivität, gemessen am Aufstieg in den Stadien des TTM, stärker gestiegen als in der Kontrollgruppe (p = 0,048). Zudem steigerte die Interventionsgruppe ihren mittleren Wochenumfang moderater bis intensiver körperlicher Aktivität mit p = 0,039 stärker als die Kontrollgruppe. Während die Aktivitäten der Interventionsgruppe von 336 ± 265 Min. / Woche (Median: 268 Min. / Woche) im Prätest auf 410 ± 278 Min. / Woche (Median: 433 Min. / Woche) im Posttest zunahmen, stiegen die Werte der Kontrollgruppe von Prätest (290 ± 224 Min. / Woche, Median: 228 Min. / Woche) zu Posttest (295 ± 201 Min. / Woche, Median: 245 Min. / Woche) kaum an. Des Weiteren war die Tendenz zu erkennen, dass ein schlechterer Gesundheitszustand sowie ein hohes Interesse zu Beginn der Beratung in Verbindung mit vermehrter Aktivität zu Beratungsende stehen. Diese Trends erreichten jedoch nicht das Signifikanzniveau, sodass für Bewegungsberater und Institutionen im Gesundheitswesen weitere Untersuchungen zu diesen potenziellen Indikatoren einer erfolgreichen Beratung wünschenswert sind. Die Ergebnisse der Studie sind vergleichbar mit den Resultaten internationaler Studien, deren Follow-up-Zeiten allerdings länger waren (¯ 6 Monate). Im Zuge der hier beschriebenen Maßnahme steigerten 47 % der 84 Personen aus der Interventionsgruppe ihre körperliche Aktivität. Bei Harland et al. (1999) und Märki et al. (2006) fanden sich Angaben von 38 bis 57 %. In Kapitel 6 Diskussion wurden neben den Untersuchungsergebnissen auch organisa- torische Aspekte der Beratungsintervention diskutiert. Die Problematik der präzisen Zielgruppenbestimmung und zweckmäßigen Rekrutierung kam zum Anklang, da viele Studienteilnehmer (48 %) bereits vor Beginn der Studie an mindestens drei Tagen der Woche 30 Minuten lang körperlich aktiv gewesen waren. Langzeitstudien sind nötig, um die Nachhaltigkeit von Beratungsprogrammen zu evaluieren, da die Veränderungs- und Aktivitätsbereitschaft im Laufe längerer Interventionen nachzulassen scheint (vgl. van der Bij et al., 2002 und Hillsdon et al., 2005). Außerdem sollten physische Kenngrößen objektiv erfasst werden, um gesundheitsfördernde Effekte einer Bewegungsberatung zu ermitteln (vgl. Ashworth et al., 2005). Durch das Zusammenwirken unterschiedlicher Fachrichtungen und Institutionen könnten in Zukunft ansprechende Beratungsangebote zur Vermittlung wohnortnaher Lebensstil-Aktivitäten für inaktive Ältere entstehen. Während ärztliche Empfehlungen oftabstrakt bleiben, kann ein Berater mit Hilfe des hier beschriebenen Modells konkrete Verbesserungsvorschläge für eine Steigerung körperlicher Aktivität im Alltag von Senioren unterbreiten.
Introduction Loss of intestinal integrity has been implicated as an important contributor to the development of excessive inflammation following severe trauma. Thus far, clinical data concerning the occurrence and significance of intestinal damage after trauma remain scarce. This study investigates whether early intestinal epithelial cell damage occurs in trauma patients and, if present, whether such cell injury is related to shock, injury severity and the subsequent inflammatory response. Methods Prospective observational cohort study in 96 adult trauma patients. Upon arrival at the emergency room (ER) plasma levels of intestinal fatty acid binding protein (i-FABP), a specific marker for damage of differentiated enterocytes, were measured. Factors that potentially influence the development of intestinal cell damage after trauma were determined, including the presence of shock and the extent of abdominal trauma and general injury severity. Furthermore, early plasma levels of i-FABP were related to inflammatory markers interleukin-6 (IL-6), procalcitonin (PCT) and C-reactive protein (CRP). Results Upon arrival at the ER, plasma i-FABP levels were increased compared with healthy volunteers, especially in the presence of shock (P < 0.01). The elevation of i-FABP was related to the extent of abdominal trauma as well as general injury severity (P < 0.05). Circulatory i-FABP concentrations at ER correlated positively with IL-6 and PCT levels at the first day (r2 = 0.19; P < 0.01 and r2 = 0.36; P < 0.001 respectively) and CRP concentrations at the second day after trauma (r2 = 0.25; P < 0.01). Conclusions This study reveals early presence of intestinal epithelial cell damage in trauma patients. The extent of intestinal damage is associated with the presence of shock and injury severity. Early intestinal damage precedes and is related to the subsequent developing inflammatory response.
Abstract: Bcl-2 family proteins including the pro-apoptotic BH3-only proteins are central regulators of apoptotic cell death. Here we show by a focused siRNA miniscreen that the synergistic action of the BH3-only proteins Bim and Bmf is required for apoptosis induced by infection with Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ngo). While Bim and Bmf were associated with the cytoskeleton of healthy cells, they both were released upon Ngo infection. Loss of Bim and Bmf from the cytoskeleton fraction required the activation of Jun-N-terminal kinase-1 (JNK-1), which in turn depended on Rac-1. Depletion and inhibition of Rac-1, JNK-1, Bim, or Bmf prevented the activation of Bak and Bax and the subsequent activation of caspases. Apoptosis could be reconstituted in Bim-depleted and Bmf-depleted cells by additional silencing of antiapoptotic Mcl-1 and Bcl-XL, respectively. Our data indicate a synergistic role for both cytoskeletal-associated BH3-only proteins, Bim, and Bmf, in an apoptotic pathway leading to the clearance of Ngo-infected cells. Author Summary: A variety of physiological death signals, as well as pathological insults, trigger apoptosis, a genetically programmed form of cell death. Pathogens often induce host cell apoptosis to establish a successful infection. Neisseria gonorrhoeae (Ngo), the etiological agent of the sexually transmitted disease gonorrhoea, is a highly adapted obligate human-specific pathogen and has been shown to induce apoptosis in infected cells. Here we unveil the molecular mechanisms leading to apoptosis of infected cells. We show that Ngo-mediated apoptosis requires a special subset of proapoptotic proteins from the group of BH3-only proteins. BH3-only proteins act as stress sensors to translate toxic environmental signals to the initiation of apoptosis. In a siRNA-based miniscreen, we found Bim and Bmf, BH3-only proteins associated with the cytoskeleton, necessary to induce host cell apoptosis upon infection. Bim and Bmf inactivated different inhibitors of apoptosis and thereby induced cell death in response to infection. Our data unveil a novel pathway of infection-induced apoptosis that enhances our understanding of the mechanism by which BH3-only proteins control apoptotic cell death.
CD8 T cells are recognized key players in control of persistent virus infections, but increasing evidence suggests that assistance from other immune mediators is also needed. Here, we investigated whether specific antibody responses contribute to control of lymphocytic choriomeningitis virus (LCMV), a prototypic mouse model of systemic persistent infection. Mice expressing transgenic B cell receptors of LCMV-unrelated specificity, and mice unable to produce soluble immunoglobulin M (IgM) exhibited protracted viremia or failed to resolve LCMV. Virus control depended on immunoglobulin class switch, but neither on complement cascades nor on Fc receptor gamma chain or Fc gamma receptor IIB. Cessation of viremia concurred with the emergence of viral envelope-specific antibodies, rather than with neutralizing serum activity, and even early nonneutralizing IgM impeded viral persistence. This important role for virus-specific antibodies may be similarly underappreciated in other primarily T cell–controlled infections such as HIV and hepatitis C virus, and we suggest this contribution of antibodies be given consideration in future strategies for vaccination and immunotherapy.
Background Endothelium-derived nitric oxide plays an important role for the bone marrow microenvironment. Since several important effects of nitric oxide are mediated by cGMP-dependent pathways, we investigated the role of the cGMP downstream effector cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (cGKI) on postnatal neovascularization. Methodology/Principal Findings In a disc neovascularization model, cGKI -/- mice showed an impaired neovascularization as compared to their wild-type (WT) littermates. Infusion of WT, but not cGKI -/- bone marrow progenitors rescued the impaired ingrowth of new vessels in cGKI-deficient mice. Bone marrow progenitors from cGKI -/- mice showed reduced proliferation and survival rates. In addition, we used cGKI alpha leucine zipper mutant (LZM) mice as model for cGKI deficiency. LZM mice harbor a mutation in the cGKI alpha leucine zipper that prevents interaction with downstream signaling molecules. Consistently, LZM mice exhibited reduced numbers of vasculogenic progenitors and impaired neovascularization following hindlimb ischemia compared to WT mice. Conclusions/Significance Our findings demonstrate that the cGMP-cGKI pathway is critical for postnatal neovascularization and establish a new role for cGKI in vasculogenesis, which is mediated by bone marrow-derived progenitors.
Background Parkinson's disease (PD) is an adult-onset movement disorder of largely unknown etiology. We have previously shown that loss-of-function mutations of the mitochondrial protein kinase PINK1 (PTEN induced putative kinase 1) cause the recessive PARK6 variant of PD. Methodology/Principal Findings Now we generated a PINK1 deficient mouse and observed several novel phenotypes: A progressive reduction of weight and of locomotor activity selectively for spontaneous movements occurred at old age. As in PD, abnormal dopamine levels in the aged nigrostriatal projection accompanied the reduced movements. Possibly in line with the PARK6 syndrome but in contrast to sporadic PD, a reduced lifespan, dysfunction of brainstem and sympathetic nerves, visible aggregates of alpha-synuclein within Lewy bodies or nigrostriatal neurodegeneration were not present in aged PINK1-deficient mice. However, we demonstrate PINK1 mutant mice to exhibit a progressive reduction in mitochondrial preprotein import correlating with defects of core mitochondrial functions like ATP-generation and respiration. In contrast to the strong effect of PINK1 on mitochondrial dynamics in Drosophila melanogaster and in spite of reduced expression of fission factor Mtp18, we show reduced fission and increased aggregation of mitochondria only under stress in PINK1-deficient mouse neurons. Conclusion Thus, aging Pink1 -/- mice show increasing mitochondrial dysfunction resulting in impaired neural activity similar to PD, in absence of overt neuronal death.
The C-module-binding factor (CbfA) is a multidomain protein that belongs to the family of jumonji-type (JmjC) transcription regulators. In the social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum, CbfA regulates gene expression during the unicellular growth phase and multicellular development. CbfA and a related D. discoideum CbfA-like protein, CbfB, share a paralogous domain arrangement that includes the JmjC domain, presumably a chromatin-remodeling activity, and two zinc finger-like (ZF) motifs. On the other hand, the CbfA and CbfB proteins have completely different carboxy-terminal domains, suggesting that the plasticity of such domains may have contributed to the adaptation of the CbfA-like transcription factors to the rapid genome evolution in the dictyostelid clade. To support this hypothesis we performed DNA microarray and real-time RT-PCR measurements and found that CbfA regulates at least 160 genes during the vegetative growth of D. discoideum cells. Functional annotation of these genes revealed that CbfA predominantly controls the expression of gene products involved in housekeeping functions, such as carbohydrate, purine nucleoside/nucleotide, and amino acid metabolism. The CbfA protein displays two different mechanisms of gene regulation. The expression of one set of CbfA-dependent genes requires at least the JmjC/ZF domain of the CbfA protein and thus may depend on chromatin modulation. Regulation of the larger group of genes, however, does not depend on the entire CbfA protein and requires only the carboxy-terminal domain of CbfA (CbfA-CTD). An AT-hook motif located in CbfA-CTD, which is known to mediate DNA binding to A+T-rich sequences in vitro, contributed to CbfA-CTD-dependent gene regulatory functions in vivo.
Background Transplantation of vasculogenic progenitor cells (VPC) improves neovascularization after ischemia. However, patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus show a reduced VPC number and impaired functional activity. Previously, we demonstrated that p38 kinase inhibition prevents the negative effects of glucose on VPC number by increasing proliferation and differentiation towards the endothelial lineage in vitro. Moreover, the functional capacity of progenitor cells is reduced in a mouse model of metabolic syndrome including type 2 diabetes (Leprdb) in vivo. Findings The aim of this study was to elucidate the underlying signalling mechanisms in vitro and in vivo. Therefore, we performed DNA-protein binding arrays in the bone marrow of mice with metabolic syndrome, in blood-derived progenitor cells of diabetic patients as well as in VPC ex vivo treated with high levels of glucose. The transcriptional activation of ETS transcription factors was increased in all samples analyzed. Downregulation of ETS1 expression by siRNA abrogated the reduction of VPC number induced by high-glucose treatment. In addition, we observed a concomitant suppression of the non-endothelial ETS-target genes matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP9) and CD115 upon short term lentiviral delivery of ETS-specific shRNAs. Long term inhibition of ETS expression by lentiviral infection increased the number of cells with the endothelial markers CD144 and CD105. Conclusion These data demonstrate that diabetes leads to dysregulated activation of ETS, which blocks the functional activity of progenitor cells and their commitment towards the endothelial cell lineage.
Blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) responses were measured in parts of primary visual cortex that represented unstimulated visual field regions at different distances from a stimulated central target location. The composition of the visual scene varied by the presence or absence of additional peripheral distracter stimuli. Bottom-up effects were assessed by comparing peripheral activity during central stimulation vs. no stimulation. Top-down effects were assessed by comparing active vs. passive conditions. In passive conditions subjects simply watched the central letter stimuli and in active conditions they had to report occurrence of pre-defined targets in a rapid serial letter stream. Onset of the central letter stream enhanced activity in V1 representations of the stimulated region. Within representations of the periphery activation decreased and finally turned into deactivation with increasing distance from the stimulated location. This pattern was most pronounced in the active conditions and during the presence of peripheral stimuli. Active search for a target did not lead to additional enhancement at areas representing the attentional focus but to a stronger deactivation in the vicinity. Suppressed neuronal activity was also found in the non distracter condition suggesting a top-down attention driven effect. Our observations suggest that BOLD signal decreases in primary visual cortex are modulated by bottom-up sensory-driven factors such as the presence of distracters in the visual field as well as by top-down attentional processes.
Mammalian retinae have rod photoreceptors for night vision and cone photoreceptors for daylight and colour vision. For colour discrimination, most mammals possess two cone populations with two visual pigments (opsins) that have absorption maxima at short wavelengths (blue or ultraviolet light) and long wavelengths (green or red light). Microchiropteran bats, which use echolocation to navigate and forage in complete darkness, have long been considered to have pure rod retinae. Here we use opsin immunohistochemistry to show that two phyllostomid microbats, Glossophaga soricina and Carollia perspicillata, possess a significant population of cones and express two cone opsins, a shortwave-sensitive (S) opsin and a longwave-sensitive (L) opsin. A substantial population of cones expresses S opsin exclusively, whereas the other cones mostly coexpress L and S opsin. S opsin gene analysis suggests ultraviolet (UV, wavelengths <400 nm) sensitivity, and corneal electroretinogram recordings reveal an elevated sensitivity to UV light which is mediated by an S cone visual pigment. Therefore bats have retained the ancestral UV tuning of the S cone pigment. We conclude that bats have the prerequisite for daylight vision, dichromatic colour vision, and UV vision. For bats, the UV-sensitive cones may be advantageous for visual orientation at twilight, predator avoidance, and detection of UV-reflecting flowers for those that feed on nectar.
Introduction Chemokines and their receptors control immune cell migration during infections as well as in autoimmune responses. A 32 bp deletion in the gene of the chemokine receptor CCR5 confers protection against HIV infection, but has also been reported to decrease susceptibility to rheumatoid arthritis (RA). The influence of this deletion variant on the clinical course of this autoimmune disease was investigated. Methods Genotyping for CCR5d32 was performed by PCR and subsequent electrophoretic fragment length determination. For the clinical analysis, the following extra-articular manifestations of RA were documented by the rheumatologist following the patient: presence of rheumatoid nodules, major organ vasculitis, pulmonary fibrosis, serositis or a Raynaud's syndrome. All documented CRP levels were analyzed retrospectively, and the last available hand and feet radiographs were analyzed with regards to the presence or absence of erosive disease. Results Analysis of the CCR5 polymorphism in 503 RA patients and in 459 age-matched healthy controls revealed a significantly decreased disease susceptibility for carriers of the CCR5d32 deletion (Odds ratio 0.67, P = 0.0437). Within the RA patient cohort, CCR5d32 was significantly less frequent in patients with extra-articular manifestations compared with those with limited, articular disease (13.2% versus 22.8%, P = 0.0374). In addition, the deletion was associated with significantly lower average CRP levels over time (median 8.85 vs. median 14.1, P = 0.0041) and had a protective effect against the development of erosive disease (OR = 0.40, P = 0.0047). Intriguingly, homozygosity for the RA associated DNASE2 -1066 G allele had an additive effect on the disease susceptibility conferred by the wt allele of CCR5 (OR = 2.24, P = 0.0051 for carrier of both RA associated alleles) Conclusions The presence of CCR5d32 significantly influenced disease susceptibility to and clinical course of RA in a German study population. The protective effect of this deletion, which has been described to lead to a decreased receptor expression in heterozygous patients, underlines the importance of chemokines in the pathogenesis of RA.