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Background: Through the rapid development in DNA sequencing methods and tools, microbiome studies on a various number of species were performed during the last decade. This advance makes it possible to analyze hundreds of samples from different species at the same time in order to obtain a general overview of the microbiota. However, there is still uncertainty on the variability of the microbiota of different animal orders and on whether certain bacteria within a species are subject to greater fluctuations than others. This is largely due to the fact that the analysis in most extensive comparative studies is based on only a few samples per species or per study site. In our study, we aim to close this knowledge gap by analyzing multiple individual samples per species including two carnivore suborders Canoidea and Feloidea as well as the orders of herbivore Perissodactyla and Artiodactyla held in different zoos. To assess microbial diversity, 621 fecal samples from 31 species were characterized by sequencing the V3–V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene using Illumina MiSeq.
Results: We found significant differences in the consistency of microbiota composition and in fecal microbial diversity between carnivore and herbivore species. Whereas the microbiota of Carnivora is highly variable and inconsistent within and between species, Perissodactyla and Ruminantia show fewer differences across species boundaries. Furthermore, low-abundance bacterial families show higher fluctuations in the fecal microbiota than high-abundance ones.
Conclusions: Our data suggest that microbial diversity is significantly higher in herbivores than in carnivores, whereas the microbiota in carnivores, unlike in herbivores, varies widely even within species. This high variability has methodological implications and underlines the need to analyze a minimum amount of about 10 samples per species. In our study, we found considerable differences in the occurrence of different bacterial families when looking at just three and six samples. However, from a sample number of 10 onwards, these within-species fluctuations balanced out in most cases and led to constant and more reliable results.
Diurnal and nocturnal behaviour of cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) and lions (Panthera leo) in zoos
(2022)
Mammals are constantly exposed to exogenous and endogenous influences that affect their behaviour and daily activity. Light and temperature, as well as anthropogenic factors such as husbandry routines, visitors, and feeding schedules are potential influences on animals in zoological gardens. In order to investigate the effects of some of these factors on animal behaviour, observational studies based on the analyses of activity budgets can be used. In this study, the daily and nightly activity budgets of six lions (Panthera leo) and five cheetahs (Acinonyx jubatus) from four EAZA institutions were investigated. Focused on the influencing factor light and feeding, we analysed these activity budgets descriptively. Behaviour was recorded and analysed during the winter months over an observation period of 14 days and 14 nights using infrared-sensitive cameras. Our results show that lions and cheetahs exhibit activity peaks at crepuscular and feeding times, regardless of husbandry. Thus, lions in captivity shift nocturnal behaviour familiar from the wild to crepuscular and diurnal times. In cheetahs, in contrast, captive and wild individuals show similar 24 h behavioural rhythms. The resting behaviour of both species is more pronounced at night, with cheetahs having a shorter overall sleep duration than lions. This study describes the results of the examined animals and is not predictive. Nevertheless, the results of this study make an important contribution to gaining knowledge about possible factors influencing the behaviour of lions and cheetahs in zoos and offer implications that could be useful for improving husbandry and management.
Animals living in human care for several generations face the risk of losing natural behaviors, which can lead to reduced animal welfare. The goal of this study is to demonstrate that meerkats (Suricata suricatta) living in zoos can assess potential danger and respond naturally based on acoustic signals only. This includes that the graded information of urgency in alarm calls as well as a response to those alarm calls is retained in captivity. To test the response to acoustic signals with different threat potential, meerkats were played calls of various animals differing in size and threat (e.g., robin, raven, buzzard, jackal) while their behavior was observed. The emitted alarm calls were recorded and examined for their graded structure on the one hand and played back to them on the other hand by means of a playback experiment to see whether the animals react to their own alarm calls even in the absence of danger. A fuzzy clustering algorithm was used to analyze and classify the alarm calls. Subsequently, the features that best described the graded structure were isolated using the LASSO algorithm and compared to features already known from wild meerkats. The results show that the graded structure is maintained in captivity and can be described by features such as noise and duration. The animals respond to new threats and can distinguish animal calls that are dangerous to them from those that are not, indicating the preservation of natural cooperative behavior. In addition, the playback experiments show that the meerkats respond to their own alarm calls with vigilance and escape behavior. The findings can be used to draw conclusions about the intensity of alertness in captive meerkats and to adapt husbandry conditions to appropriate welfare.
Locating a vocalizing animal can be useful in many fields of bioacoustics and behavioral research, and is often done in the wild, covering large areas. In zoos, however, the application of this method becomes particularly difficult, because, on the one hand, the animals are in a relatively small area and, on the other hand, reverberant environments and background noise complicate the analysis. Nevertheless, by localizing and analyzing animal sounds, valuable information on physiological state, sex, subspecies, reproductive state, social status, and animal welfare can be gathered. Therefore, we developed a sound localization software that is able to estimate the position of a vocalizing animal precisely, making it possible to assign the vocalization to the corresponding individual, even under difficult conditions. In this study, the accuracy and reliability of the software is tested under various conditions. Different vocalizations were played back through a loudspeaker and recorded with several microphones to verify the accuracy. In addition, tests were carried out under real conditions using the example of the giant otter enclosure at Dortmund Zoo, Germany. The results show that the software can estimate the correct position of a sound source with a high accuracy (median of the deviation 0.234 m). Consequently, this software could make an important contribution to basic research via position determination and the associated differentiation of individuals, and could be relevant in a long-term application for monitoring animal welfare in zoos.
In order to effectively address global environmental problems, it is important that future decision-makers in society are aware of the safe operation space for humans, which is limited by the planetary boundaries. Until now, however, there has been a lack of international studies examining how the planet's boundaries are perceived. In this study, we investigated how students of environmental and sustainability studies in 35 countries (n = 4140) assess the planetary boundaries. Based on the rating, using spectral clustering, the 35 countries were assigned to five different clusters. Four indicators (Human Development Index, Legatum Prosperity Index, Natural Resources Income and Forest Area) were used to provide explanations for the clustering result. The indices allow a distinction between the clusters and provide initial explanations for the clustering. The results provide important insights for today's decision-makers, as possible measures for action in the individual countries can be derived from the findings.
Zoos attract millions of visitors every year, many of whom are schoolchildren. For this reason, zoos are important institutions for the environmental education of future generations. Empirical studies on the educational impact of environmental education programs in zoos are still rare. To address this issue, we conducted two studies: In study 1, we investigated students’ interests in different biological topics, including zoos (n = 1,587). Data analysis of individual topics revealed large differences of interest, with advanced students showing less interest in zoos. In study 2, we invited school classes of this age group to visit different guided tours at the zoo and tested connection to nature before and after each educational intervention (n = 608). The results showed that the guided tours are an effective tool to raise students’ connection to nature. Add-on components have the potential to further promote connection to nature. The education programs are most effective with students with a low initial nature connection.
In recent decades, zoos have been increasingly transformed into education centers with the goal of raising awareness about environmental issues and providing environmental education. Probably the simplest and most widespread environmental education program in the zoo is the guided tour. This study therefore aims to test whether a one hour zoo tour has an influence on the participants’ connection to nature and attitude towards species conservation. For this purpose, 269 people who had voluntarily registered for a zoo tour were surveyed before and after the tour. In addition to the regular zoo tour, special themed tours and tours with animal feedings were included. The results show a positive increase in connection to nature and a strengthening of positive attitudes towards species conservation for all tour types. For nature connectedness, in particular, people with an initial high connection to nature benefitted from the special themed tours and the tours, including animal feedings. For attitudes towards species conservation, no difference was found between the tour types. The results prove the positive influence of a very simple environmental education program, even for people with a preexisting high level of connection to nature and positive attitude towards species conservation.
Interest is an important factor for successful learning that has been the subject of intensive research for decades. Although interest in nature is of great importance for environmental education, to date there is no valid and reliable measurement tool. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to develop and test a scale for interest in nature, the Nature Interest Scale (NIS). In study 1, nine items were selected based on the three dimensions of the psychological interest construct to represent interest in nature. The factor structure of this new measurement instrument, was tested using confirmatory factor analyses. The results show that the instrument represents the three dimensions of the interest construct well. In study 2 the validity (discriminant and convergent validity) as well as the reliability (internal consistency, composite reliability, test-retest reliability) of the NIS were demonstrated. In study 3, the applicability of the NIS was tested with a different target group, students with learning disabilities. The results of this factor analysis also confirm the factor structure of the scale. Thus, this study provides a valid and reliable measurement tool for individual interest in nature that can be used for future research.
In recent environmental research, relational values (RVs) have emerged as a new group of values to explain environmental behavior. Although this new concept is attracting attention, empirical studies on the subject are still rare. On this basis, we have conducted three studies to analyze an existing measurement tool for RVs and compared the construct with the concept of connection to nature. In study 1, we confirmed convergent and discriminant validity of the RV scale by comparing it with the Two Factor Model of Environmental Values (2-MEV) model using a sample of n = 350 university students. Additionally, study 1 verified reliability using test–retest reliability on three different groups of students (n1 = 53; n2 = 37; n3 = 48). In study 2, principal component analyses were performed to examine the structure of RVs and to compare it to the concept of connection to nature by reusing the sample 350 university students from study 1. The results show that RVs and connection to nature are not fundamentally distinct constructs, but overlap. However, if the structure of the RV measurement is forced to a single factor, no perfect fit is found, making a multidimensional solution more likely. A third study was conducted to review the results from study 2 using confirmatory factor analysis on a new sample of 878 university and high school students. Study 3 confirmed RVs as a multidimensional construct with three factors: care, community, and connection. It also proved the overlap of the connection to nature and RV concepts to some extent.
Impact of biological education and gender on students' connection to nature and relational values
(2020)
The new concept of relational values (RVs) is gaining more and more attention in environmental research, but empirical analyses are still rare. However, this type of research is necessary because the RVs have an influence on environmental behavior. To evaluate the impact of biological education on attributing higher importance to RVs and connectedness to nature, we compared the connection to nature scores (using the inclusion of nature scale (INS) and connectedness to nature scale (CNS)) and RV scores of biologically interested high school students (n = 417) with first year (n = 593) and advanced biology (n = 223) students. While high school students showed significant lower connection to nature scores than university students, there was no significant difference in RVs between the test groups. These results suggest that there is a lack of factors in the university study of biology that can change RVs. The gender comparison of RVs and connection to nature showed a significant higher RV score for females while INS and CNS did not show a gender difference. Thus, the study makes an important contribution to the research, as it was able to prove that gender has an influence on a person's RVs but not on their connection to nature.
The UN's sustainable development goals (SDGs), which aim to solve important economic, social, and environmental problems of humanity, are to be supported by education for sustainable development (ESD). Empirical studies on the success of the implementation of the SDGs in the field of education are still pending. For this reason, using the loss of global biodiversity as an example, this study examined the extent to which high school students, teacher trainees in biology, and biology bachelor students can identify the causes of the global biodiversity loss. A new questioning tool was developed and tested on 889 participants. In addition, the relationship between connection to nature and the personal assessment about biodiversity threats was examined. The factor analysis of the scale used showed that 11 out of 16 items were assigned to the intended factor. The comparison between high school students, teacher trainees in biology, and biology bachelor students showed no significant difference in overall assessment of the reasons for global biodiversity loss. When comparing the three risk levels in which the risk factors for biodiversity could be divided, across the three student groups, only minor differences were found. Therefore, a specific education of prospective teachers is necessary, as they have to pass on the competence as multipliers to their students. No significant difference could be found when examining the relationship between connection to nature and the overall scores of the assessment scale for the reasons of biodiversity loss. However, it was found that people who felt more connected to nature were more capable of assessing the main causes of risk for global biodiversity, while people who felt less connected to nature achieved better scores for the medium factors
Measuring connection to nature - a illustrated extension of the inclusion of nature in self scale
(2021)
The human-nature connection is an important factor that is frequently the subject of environmental education research and environmental psychology. Therefore, over the years, numerous measuring instruments have been established to quantitatively record a person’s connection to nature. However, there is no instrument specifically for children with cognitive limitations. For this reason, in this study, an established scale for connection to nature, the inclusion of nature in self scale (INS), was modified especially for the needs of this group. Study 1 investigated what students understand by the term “nature” in order to create an illustrated version of the INS. In study 2, the new instrument was tested on university students and compared with the original INS and the connectedness to nature scale (CNS). No significant differences between the original INS and the new developed scale were found (p = 0.247), from which it can be concluded that the illustrated INS (IINS) measures the connection to nature with similar accuracy as the original INS. In study 3, the instrument was tested together with other established nature connection instruments on the actual target group, students with disabilities. The correlation between the IINS, the CNS, and nature connectedness scale (NR) were in accordance with the expected literature values (rIINS-CNS = 0.570 & rIINS-NR = 0.605). The results of this study also prove effectiveness of the developed illustrated scale. This research thus provides a suitable measuring instrument for people with learning difficulties and can make a contribution to the investigation of human-nature connections and conservation education.
The success of the increasing use of technology in education is highly dependent on learner acceptance. Although the Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is dominant in research for surveying acceptance of technology, it does not allow the prediction of a successful first time use of technology. The successful first time use can be determined with the survey of technology affinity, as it corresponds to the expression of certain personality traits of users and is thus detached from the specific technology. Since there are no measurement instruments for the educational sector so far and existing instruments for measuring technology affinity do not meet the specific requirements for use in the educational context (e.g., limited time for questioning), we present the single item Inclusion of Technology Affinity in Self-Scale (ITAS). In study 1 we provide evidence of convergent and discriminant validity within the general population so that a generalization of its applicability is possible. In study 2 we subsequently tested ITAS in the actual target group, the educational sector. The high correlations of the ITAS with the ATI and the control instrument TA-EG (ranging from rs = 0.679 to rs = 0.440) show that ITAS is suitable for use in research. Furthermore, the newly developed instrument convinces with its low complexity, the graphical component, which requires little text understanding and the high time saving. This research thus can contribute to the investigation of technology affinity in the educational sector helping educators to conduct technical activities with their learning group, to predict possible difficulties and adjust their planning accordingly.
The present study assessed the diurnal variation in salivary cortisol in captive African elephants during routine management (baseline) and in relation to a potential stressor (translocation) to evaluate to what extent acute stress may affect diurnal cortisol patterns. Under baseline conditions, we collected morning and afternoon saliva samples of 10 animals (three zoos) on different days in two study periods (n = 3–10 per animal, daytime and period). Under stress conditions, we sampled the transported cow (newcomer) and the two cows of the destination zoo before and after the transport in the morning and afternoon (n = 3–9 per animal, daytime and transport phase), as well as after the first introduction of the newcomer to the bull (n = 1 per animal). Cortisol was measured in unextracted samples by enzyme immunoassay. Under baseline conditions, we observed the expected diurnal variation with higher cortisol levels in the morning than in the afternoon. Under stress conditions, neither a significant difference between pre‐ and posttransport, nor between morning and afternoon levels was found. The percentage difference between morning and afternoon cortisol after the transport, however, was remarkably lower than before the transport in the newcomer potentially indicating a stress response to familiarization. Saliva samples taken immediately after the introduction of the newcomer to the bull revealed a marked cortisol increase. Our findings indicate that stressors may disturb the diurnal cortisol rhythm. Furthermore, provided that samples can be collected promptly, salivary cortisol is a useful minimally invasive measure of physiological stress in the African elephant.
1.Thedescriptionandanalysisofanimalbehavioroverlongperiodsoftimeisoneof the most important challenges in ecology. However, most of these studies are limited due to the time and cost required by human observers. The collection of data via video recordings allows observation periods to be extended. However, their evaluation by human observers is very time-consuming. Progress in automated evaluation, using suitable deep learning methods, seems to be a forward-looking approach to analyze even large amounts of video data in an adequate time frame.
2. In this study, we present a multistep convolutional neural network system for detecting three typical stances of African ungulates in zoo enclosures which works with high accuracy. An important aspect of our approach is the introduction of model averaging and postprocessing rules to make the system robust to outliers.
3. Our trained system achieves an in-domain classification accuracy of >0.92, which is improved to >0.96 by a postprocessing step. In addition, the whole system per- forms even well in an out-of-domain classification task with two unknown types, achieving an average accuracy of 0.93. We provide our system at https://github. com/Klimroth/Video-Action-Classifier-for-African-Ungulates-in-Zoos/tree/main/ mrcnn_based so that interested users can train their own models to classify im- ages and conduct behavioral studies of wildlife.
4. The use of a multistep convolutional neural network for fast and accurate clas- sification of wildlife behavior facilitates the evaluation of large amounts of image data in ecological studies and reduces the effort of manual analysis of images to a high degree. Our system also shows that postprocessing rules are a suitable way to make species-specific adjustments and substantially increase the accuracy of the description of single behavioral phases (number, duration). The results in the out-of-domain classification strongly suggest that our system is robust and achieves a high degree of accuracy even for new species, so that other settings (e.g., field studies) can be considered.
Out-of-school laboratories, also called student labs, are an advantageous opportunity to teach biological subjects. Particularly in the case of complex fields such as neurobiology, student labs offer the opportunity to learn about difficult topics in a practical way. Due to numerous advantages, digital student labs are becoming increasingly popular nowadays. In this study, we investigated the effect of an electrophysiological setup for a virtual experiment with and without hands-on elements on participant motivation and technology acceptance. For this purpose, 235 students were questioned during a student laboratory day. The surveyed students showed high motivation and technology acceptance for the virtual experiment. In the comparison, the electrophysiological setup with hands-on elements performs better in the intrinsic components than the setup without hands-on elements: Thus, the hands-on approach is rated as more interesting and the perceived enjoyment scores higher. Nevertheless, both experimental groups show high values, so that the results of the study support the positive influence of digital laboratory as well as a positive influence of hands-on elements.