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Shattered maceheads at early bronze age Tel Bet Yerah: symbolic power and destruction, but whose?
(2019)
An unusually large number of stone macehead fragments were found in a large open court in the Early Bronze Age site of Tel Bet Yerah, Israel. Maces, which first appear in the Levant in the seventh millennium BCE, are considered the earliest dedicated combat weapons in western Asia; in later periods they take on a symbolic role. We discuss the sequence of events leading to the accumulation of maceheads at Bet Yerah, the people who may have been implicated in it and its possible political significance.
In Bronze Age Cyprus, fortifications are only known from the beginning of Late Cypriote I (17th century BC) onwards, after previously only open settlements existed. In the first phase of the construction of these fortifications they had no uniform character, while later in the 13th century BC (Late Cypriote IIC), like in the Levant, they served primarily to secure settlements with a character of economic and administrative centres. Castles as enwalled noble residences are generally unknown in the Bronze Age of Cyprus.
The history of the Lombards could well be designated a history of warfare, for in the course of the 206-year existence of their realm in Italy the Lombards constantly carried out warfare of varying intensity, whether in their own defence or to expand their territory. Even the time prior to their invasion of Italy, especially their advances from Pannonia, were already marked by numerous military conflicts. Of particular interest here are the questions with reference to the background and the course of these conflicts, and also to the weaponry that was utilised. In the following contribution the weapons of Lombard warriors – or more specifically – the weapons used by warriors in Lombardian Italy will be examined. This specification is necessary because Lombard warriors experienced many interactions with other powers, for example, with Byzantine forces stationed in Italy (until 751 AD), and with foreign enemies like the Franks and Avars, who however could always turn into cooperative partners for the Lombards. Thus, it can be assumed that ultimately through contacts with enemies as well as with allies, the different types of Lombard weaponry depended upon the respective situation. Aside from use in real battles, weapons of the Lombards also had other functions: They were of symbolic significance in that they could demonstrate power and social differences. Certain types of weapons can be interpreted as signs of rank – which of course applies to the early Middle Ages on the whole. In principal, three groups of source material are at disposal for study: 1) references in written sources, 2) contemporary depictions of Lombard warriors, and 3) archaeological evidence, that is, weapons and pieces of armament found in graves, settlements and also occasional finds – including those without a find context. An overall picture of Lombard weaponry can only be gained when all possible source groups are evaluated.
The eastern part of the state of Hesse in Germany between the Vogelsberg and Rhön mountains was one area included in the field investigations of the LOEWE project on “Prehistoric conflict Research – Bronze Age Hillforts between Taunus and Carpathian Mountains”. There are several mountains in the county of Fulda with remains of protohistoric fortifications, which still need to be dated and further investigated. Our surveys and excavations took place successively at Stallberg, Kleinberg, Haimberg and Sängersberg. The results are briefly presented in this paper and will form part of more detailed forthcoming publications. At Stallberg and Kleinberg, no archaeological features had been destroyed by erosion, so sufficient material was found to date these sites. At Stallberg, two main periods of use have been documented by radiocarbon dates and corresponding artefacts: the Late Neolithic Michelsberg Culture and the Late Middle-Ages. At Kleinberg, radiocarbon datings indicate an occupation at the end of the Bronze Age and during the first Iron Age, whereas most of the ceramic sherds are typical for the second Iron Age and medieval times. Unfortunately, the fortification at the Haimberg is destroyed, and further excavation is not possible. Finally, at Sängersberg, the various field investigations brought forth evidence of conflicts during the Bronze Age.
Th e article discusses the plant species found during the 2016 archaeological campaign inside the fortification of Teleac. Analysis of the macro remains recovered from archaeological deposits in Teleac helped to reconstruct the plant species cultivated by the Late Bronze Age inhabitants. The predominant cereal species in the samples was Panicum miliaceum (broomcorn/domestic millet) with 51 seeds, followed by Triticum monococcum (einkorn) with 27 seeds and Triticum spelta (spelt wheat) with 14 seeds. Also revealed were Triticum dicoccum (emmer) with 9 seeds and Secale sp. (rye) with 7 seeds. An overview of the entire Bronze Age, our focus shows that during this period the communities were engaged predominantly in agriculture, preserving their habits from the area of their origin. The results of specific analyses show that peasant farming was the mainstay of Bronze Age life.
In this work we present an overview of the proliferation of walled hilltop sites in southwestern Europe, named castellari in Liguria, castellar in Provence, castelo in Portugal, with the question whether they are real settlements or just fortified enclosures in the Final Bronze Age. In many cases scholars considered only those with a similar context in Iron Ages as real fortifications. But, after a study with the support of psychology and physiology of violence and a careful examination of the structures and their contexts, it is possible to hypothesize their defensive nature also during the Final Bronze Age with less doubt. In this way it is possible to delineate, in a chronologically non-uniform way, in southwest Europe a social phenomenon definable as ‘castling’, and we can link this phenomenon to specific causes. Within this phenomenon, we can consider the use of walls on hilltops as practical-symbolic function concurrently. The case study of the Portuguese Middle Tagus region in Central Portugal and of the Liguria region in northwest Italy, the two extremities of the considered macro-region, are considered.
Micromorphology is a suitable method to study the contents and stratigraphic relationships of pit fills. Within the ramparts of Corneşti-Iarcuri, fill layers of a pit were sampled. Th e pit fill was macroscopically divided into primary and secondary fill due to striking differences. These differences could be verified and concretized micromorphologically.
The LOEWE-project “Prehistoric Conflict Research” is determined in several new ways to interpret the archaeological evidence of Bronze Age fortifications. One way is the comparison with other non-modern cultures of conflict and their use of fortifications. In this paper, the conquest of Aquitaine by the Carolingian rulers of the Franks (760–769 CE) is taken as such an example. By analysing the (near-)contemporary historiographical record, the military role of fortifications in post-Roman warfare is discussed. It turns out that in the historiographers’ view, fortified settlements were focal points of military activity, and that combat occurred around them far more often than in the open field. Nonetheless, warfare in the surroundings of fortifications signified more than only sieges: the historiographical sources show a great variety of events connected to them as part of the war. Furthermore, a semantic inquiry of the material shows a special notion in texts concerning the “capture” of fortified settlements. This could be achieved not only by force, but also with diplomatic means, and the historiographers valued success higher than bravery. Moreover, the amount of violence seems to have been limited, as is indicated by the small number of destroyed fortifications and by the debates ensuing about one particular massacre (Clermont-Ferrand in 761 CE), which obviously was at odds with contemporary ideas about appropriate warfare. These results imply that archaeological research on conflict would benefit greatly from broadening its scope beyond actual battle events, in order to disclose the conflicts of Bronze Age Europe in all their complexity.
The current paper summarizes the development of Bronze Age Aegean fortifications with a special focus on the Aegean Early and Middle Bronze Age. In order to get a better understanding of Aegean fortifications for each period, their numbers are set into relation with the number of known sites and other features. The impressive multi-phased fortifications of sites such as Troy or Kolonna on the island of Aegina will be used as case studies to explain the development of Early to Middle Bronze Age sites in the central Aegean. The final part of the paper gives a preview on the development of Late Bronze Age (Mycenaean palatial and postpalatial) fortifications.
Sântana-Cetatea Veche. A late bronze age mega-fort in the Lower Mureș Basin in Southwestern Romania
(2019)
Our contribution provides an overview of the archaeological investigations carried out, including those in 2018, at the large fortification of Sântana–Cetatea Veche, north of Arad in Romania. The new research was undertaken within the framework of the LOEWE project “Prehistoric Conflict Research – Bronze Age Hillforts between Taunus and Carpathian Mountains”. In accordance with the main scientific guidelines of the project, the research efforts encompassed archaeological fieldwork, magnetometric surveys of the entire area of the fortification, as well as a LiDAR scan covering an area of nearly 850 ha. As a result of the excavation undertaken in the eastern part of the defences pertaining to enclosure III, new absolute chronological data were obtained, which in corroboration with the older information offer a clear dating of the fortification system to the 15th to 13th centuries BC.
Attributing the large-scale, but tactically suspect, south Levantine Bronze Age fortification systems a ‘social’ role has become an archaeological commonplace, yet it begs the crucial question of form – if a polity, a social class, or a collective wish to advertise their cohesion, power, or wealth, why choose fortifications, rather than burial monuments, temples or palaces? In other words, what social end was served by conspicuous, inefficient, military consumption? This paper aims to offer a preliminary answer to this question through three interlocking arguments: The first, that societies like that of the Levantine Bronze Age are characterized by the existence of cooperative labor obligations; the second, that this collective labor investment was, in the ancient Levant, primarily dedicated to defense; the third, that tactically imperfect fortifications were nonetheless strategically successful as defensive installations, even while promoting social cohesion and projecting elite power.
This paper provides a glimpse into the palaeoecological conditions at the prehistoric settlement Corneşti-Iarcuri in the southwest Romanian Banat, which is known as the largest Bronze Age fortification in Europe. Preservation of pollen is generally poor in the region, where extensive marshlands have been drained and converted into arable lands since the 18th century. Remarkably, some fossil topsoils buried under thick colluvial layers within the fortification proved to contain pollen. Together with the sediments themselves, which serve as direct evidence for anthropogenically infl uenced geomorphodynamics and could partially be put into chronological context by radiocarbon dating, the on-site palynological data offer a unique opportunity to reconstruct the palaeoenvironmental setting at Corneşti. Results reveal that during the Chalcolithic period, a partially cleared open woodland with Tilia, Quercus and Corylus prevailed. Soil erosion began in some central parts of the settlement site, resulting in the accumulation of up to 90 cm of colluvium in the main valley. Until the Early Iron Age, regional tree percentages dropped from around 38 to 22 %, while anthropogenic indicators (Cerealia, Plantago lanceolata, Polygonum aviculare) increased from 11 to 16 %. Meanwhile, between 50 to 170 cm of colluvium were deposited at the investigated floodplain sites.
During the advanced Early Bronze Age two innovative weapons – the sword and the bronze lancehead – became widespread or were regionally produced in vast parts of Europe. The rapid dispersion of these new weapons implies the corresponding necessity for defence measures and the supply of raw materials, as well as the presence of metalworkers, who possessed technical know-how. The ability to handle a sword or a lance required in turn specific training, which was not limited to only a few persons. The appearance of these weapons occurred around the same time as the construction of fortified settlements in elevated locations in Central Europe.
The large hillfort of Teleac, commanding the Mureş River valley, the principal East-West connecting axis in the Carpathian Basin, was likely built in the second half of the 11th century BC and occupied until the end of the 10th or the early 9th century BC. The fortification wall was destroyed around 920 BC, according to recent investigations. More than 40 iron objects were discovered in the fortified complex. These iron finds viewed together with numerous other iron finds from other sites signify that Transylvania was an early centre of the implementation of iron and presumably iron production. Thereby, the use of iron for producing weapons probably stood in the foreground. This is indicated by corresponding grave finds in Greece that contain a sword as offering, but also iron swords found in Slovenia and Romania.
Foreword
(2019)
Axel Fleisch, Afrikanist
(2019)
Informationen zu Bildern des Afghanistankriegs werden im Internet auf den Seiten, auf denen sie veröffentlicht werden, ausschließlich durch die das Bild ergänzende Bildunterschrift geliefert. Im Internet gelten spezifische Regeln der Publikation von Bildern, die Einfluss auf Bildmotive und deren Reichweite nehmen. Es existiert eine Informationslücke hinsichtlich der Bildquelle, der innewohnenden Deutungen sowie der Bedingungen ihrer Entstehung und Verbreitung im Internet. Die eigens für Bilder im Internet entwickelte Methode des verfeinerten Netzscans legt die Regularien der Bildveröffentlichungen und Bildproduktionen frei, welche durch den eingebetteten Journalismus, neue netzinhärente Gatekeeping-Prozesse sowie die Suchmaschine Google bestimmt werden und schafft Zugangsweisen der Decodierung von Bildern und deren Quellen.
Im Zusammenhang mit geplanten Bauvorhaben im Industriegebiet der Stadt Bopfingen wurden in den Jahren 1989 bis 1991 archäologische Untersuchungen unter der Leitung des Landesdenkmalamtes Baden-Württemberg durchgeführt. Im Rahmen der Grabungen stieß man in vier Suchschnitten südlich der B 29 zwischen den Bopfinger Ortsteilen Flochberg und Trochtelfingen auf parallele Gräbchen, die erste Hinweise auf eine römische Straße gaben. In der Folge wurden zwei römische Straßentrassen, vier Gebäudefundamente und ein Brunnen ausgegraben. Die Lage der vier Gebäude in unmittelbarer Nähe zu einer römischen Straße ließ vermuten, dass es sich dabei um Teile einer Straßenstation handeln könnte.
Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, anhand der zur Verfügung stehenden Grabungsdokumentation die römischen Befunde und Funde zu erschließen und zu deuten.
Im archäologischen Befund ließen sich vier Straßentrassen unterscheiden (A, 1, B, 2), die, wie die Untersuchungen gezeigt haben, zu zwei Straßen zusammengefasst werden können (Straße A/1 sowie Straße B/2), deren Richtung durch die Richtung von Gräben bestimmt werden kann.
Die Nutzung der Straße A/1 steht in einem Zusammenhang mit der Belegung des Militärlagers in Oberdorf. Für seine Belegung wird ein Zeitraum vom Ende des 1. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. bis in die Zeit zwischen der frühen 1. Hälfte und der Mitte des 2. Jahrhunderts n. Chr. angenommen. Damit fällt die Nutzung der Straße A/1 in die Zeit des Alb-Limes und in die Anfangsphase der römischen Okkupation Rätiens nördlich der Donau. Die Straße A/1 ist demnach die ältere der beiden Straßen. Die Straße B/2 wurde wahrscheinlich vom Härtsfeld und vom Nördlinger Ries aus in zwei Abschnitten zeitgleich geplant und zur Straßenstation hin gebaut. Darauf deuten einmal die unterschiedlichen Breiten der Straßenabschnitte „B“ und „2“ von 9 m und 6 m hin. Zum anderen muss das Gebäude 3 mit dem Raum 2 zu diesem Zeitpunkt bereits bestanden oder sich zumindest im Bau befunden haben, denn der Straßenverlauf passt sich in diesem Bereich dem Grundriss des Gebäudes an. Sie ist als eine Fortsetzung der Straße Faimingen-Aalen in Richtung Nördlinger Ries anzusehen.
Von den vier freigelegten Gebäuden sind zwei Gebäude mit hypokaustierten Räumen versehen und lassen sich als Bad (Gebäude 1) und als Herberge (Gebäude 2) ansprechen.
Raum 2 des Gebäudes 3 und eine Viehweide südlich der antiken Straße ins Nördlinger Ries boten die Möglichkeit, Tiere, Transportmittel und Fracht über Nacht unterzubringen. Die Räume 1 und 2 des Gebäudes 3 wurden zeitversetzt gebaut, was vermutlich auf die Notwendigkeit einer Vergrößerung von Stell- und Lagerplätzen innerhalb des Gebäudes 3 und damit auf eine Erhöhung der Nutzungsrate im Verlaufe der Betriebszeit der Straßenstation hinweist. Das vierte Gebäude zeigt den für einen gallo-römischen Umgangstempel typischen Grundriss in Form von zwei konzentrisch verlaufenden rechteckigen Mauerzügen. Der kleine Tempel stand den kultischen Bedürfnissen der Nutzer der Straßenstation zur Verfügung.
Im Fundspektrum der Straßenstation sind Gefäßkeramik, Metall und Glas mit Abstand am häufigsten vertretenen, Münzen, Baukeramik sowie Funde aus Stein und Bein dagegen nur in kleinen Mengen.
Die Gefäßkeramik der Straßenstation weist einen sehr hohen Anteil an
tongrundig-glattwandiger Ware und einen deutlich geringen Anteil an Terra Sigillata auf. Ein Vergleich mit sechs zufällig ausgewählten Gutshöfen (villae rusticae) zeigt, dass fünf Gutshöfe einen TS-Anteil von über 19 % aufweisen, während bei der Straßenstation dieser Anteil nur 5 % beträgt. Um diese Auffälligkeit zu untersuchen, wurden Magerung, Gefäßform und Warenart der gesamten Gefäßkeramik auf Identitäten untersucht. Das Ergebnis lässt vermuten, dass Reibschalen, Kragenschüsseln und Schalen von der Form wie Drag. 32. der tongrundig-glattwandigen Ware mit einer Wahrscheinlichkeit von 95 % bei ihrer Niederlegung der engobierten Ware zugerechnet werden müssen. Die Veränderung, die eine Scherbe der engobieren Ware während ihrer Bodenlagerung erfahren hat, kann man als „keramische Taphonomie“ bezeichnen. Damit lässt sich für die Straßenstation die Verteilung der Warenarten und der Gefäßformen zum Zeitpunkt der Niederlegung der Gefäße rekonstruieren. In diesem Zusammenhang wird eine Methode aufgezeigt, welche die Zugehörigkeit von gleichartigen Materialgruppen (z. B. Keramik) aus verschiedenen Fundkomplexen (z. B. aus der Abfalldeponierung) quantitativ bewertet.
Fasst man die Gefäße von Terra Sigillata und Glanztonware zum Tisch- und Tafelgeschirr zusammen, dann ergibt sich, dass der Anteil des Tisch- und Tafelgeschirrs der Straßenstation bei etwa 30 % liegt und mit dem der Gutshöfe (villae rusticae) vergleichbar ist. Dieses Ergebnis kann man so interpretieren, dass die Betreiber der Straßenstation sich bei der Beschaffung und dem Erhalt des Tisch- und Tafelgeschirrs auf das Notwendigste an
TS-Gefäßen beschränkten und das weitere Geschirr in einer der Sigillata optisch sehr ähnlichen Keramik, nämlich in engobierter Ware, beschafften. ...
Until now 33 hilltop settlements that might represent Bronze Age hillforts have been registered in South Bohemia. However, only four sites have been distinguished and designated with certainty as Bronze Age fortifications through modern archaeological excavations. As for the other sites, the probability is smaller. The main chronological horizons of the preference for hillforts are the turn of the Early to the Middle Bronze Age (Br A2/B1–B1; c. 1800–1500 BC) and the turn of the Late and Final Bronze Age (Ha A2–B1 and Ha B; c. 1050–800 BC). Enclosed areas of rather small dimensions existed throughout the Bronze Age. There are several Bronze Age hillforts, about which we have gained a fairly clear idea about the construction of their fortifications.
In this contribution, two open problems in computational stemmatology are being considered. The first one is contamination, an umbrella term referring to all phenomena of admixture of text variants resulting from scribes considering more than one manuscript or even memory when copying a text. This problem is one of the biggest to date in stemmatology since it implies an entirely different formal approach to the reconstruction of the copy history of a tradition and in turn to the reconstruction of an urtext. (Maas 1937) famously stated that there is no remedy against contamination and (Pasquali and Pieraccioni 1952) coined the terms 'open' vs. 'closed' recensions to distinguish contaminated from uncontaminated. We present a graph theoretical model which formally accommodates traditions with any degree of contamination while maintaining a temporal ordering and give combinatorial numbers and formula on the implication for numbers of possible scenarios.
In the archaeology of Scandinavian Bronze Age rock art, there is a long-standing debate over the function and role of the engraved weapons and warriors. The question can be boiled down to: Are the depicted warriors actual fighters, or are they showmen merely portraying an identity to gain status and power? One of the proposals was that spears are active because they occur in killing scenes and swords are passive because they are mostly depicted sheathed. Discussing recent rock art research on the transformation of petroglyphs, their narrative structure as well as new discoveries of weapon depictions, and confronting this with results from use wear analyses on similar weaponry, this paper sets out to argue that the answers to this problem may not be as straight forward as previously proposed. Instead it is proposed that while there is a concern with showmanship relating to a warrior identity in Scandinavian rock art, it is based on real combat, fighting, and killing. Rock art was used to enhance the stature of warriors and to make narratives more exciting that involve warriors.
The hillfort settlement of Monkodonja, located in the vicinity of the town Rovinj, is representative of the Bronze Age Castellieri culture in Istria. Twelve years of excavations that lasted one month each year revealed a proto-urban settlement with extensive fortification system, and a tripartite division of its interior that could well reflect the hierarchical social structure of its inhabitants. Remarkably, a change in the fortification concept during the time of the settlement’s existence could also be observed. With regard to bronze objects and ceramic finds the settlement is dated generally between the developed Early Bronze Age and the beginning of the Middle Bronze Age, or in Br A2 and Br B1 periods according to the chronology of Paul Reinecke. Moreover, about 40 radiocarbon dates from the Monkodonja settlement have also been analysed. The foundation of the settlement is dated to around 1800 cal BC. The second extensive building phase, including the rebuilding of the fortification system according to new defensive concepts, is dated approximately to 1600 cal BC, while the destruction of the settlement occurred around 1500 cal BC or in the middle of the 15th century BC at the latest.
Among many prehistoric hillforts of the Western Carpathians the one located at Maszkowice village displays unique traits. The site was excavated in 1960s and 1970s, but it was not until 2015 that the new field project revealed remains of massive stone fortifications. The wall of the Zyndram’s Hill is dated to the Early Bronze Age (18th century BC), being one of the earliest examples of defensive stone architecture in Europe outside Mediterranean. In our paper we shall discuss the development of the defensive system with its geographical and settlement context. Considering the results of fieldwork and other applied methods we can assume, that the enclosed settlement in Maszkowice functioned as an isolated point located in scarcely populated area. Therefore, we need to stress the landscape and geological circumstances which played a significant role in inner layout organization, social perception and the development of settlement and its fortifications. The stone wall was erected already at the beginning of the site’s occupation. The defensive system existed then in its most elaborated form (with at least two gates leading into the village), while later during several dozen years the fortifications slowly but constantly deteriorated. Finally, in conclusion we shall consider the stone wall of Zyndram’s Hill not as a product of local adaptation, but as a result of a prepared execution of a project.
The construction of fortified settlements upon mountain summits and mountain spurs signifies a new form of defensive architecture for the Bronze Age in the 2nd millennium BC, which we designate ‘Bronze Age’ hillforts or fortresses. With mighty walls and gates built using various techniques with wood, clay and stone, the fortifi ed hill settlements manifest an eminent need for protection from assault, while at the same time they were obviously centres of power, from which territories and natural resources as well as travel routes could be controlled. Within the focus of the Hesse excellence initiative LOEWE “Prehistoric Conflict Research – Bronze Age Fortifi cations between Taunus and Carpathian Mountains” new approaches are made on the subject “War and Fortresses as Architecture of Power” in 2016–2019. Th ese studies are being carried out by the Goethe University in Frankfurt/Main and the Römisch-Germanische Kommission in Frankfurt/Main. The objective was to observe the development and character of fortifi ed structures in cultural spheres south of the Alps and landscapes north of the Alps in diachronic comparison in order to better understand the genesis and function of fortifications in their cultural milieu.
Die seit der jüngeren Bronzezeit verstärkt auftretenden Bogenschützen und Schleuderer bedurften eines spezifischen Trainings und einer Ausbildung, die weg vom Individualkämpfer zum Kämpfer im Verbund ausgerichtet war. Dieser Prozess wird als Professionalisierung in der Kriegsführung und als einschneidende Veränderung im Konfliktgeschehen in der Bronzezeit verstanden. Der Begriff der Professio nalisierung wird daher zunächst in seiner technischen Bedeutung verwendet. Mit der Entwicklung von einer individuellen zu einer organisierten und in der Gruppe ausgeübten Aktion sind eine Steigerung der Effizienz und eine Standardisierung verbunden, die zur Verbesserung der Qualität – eben dem bewaffneten Konflikt führt. Seit der jüngeren Mittelbronzezeit und in der Spätbronzezeit sind durch spektakuläre neue Befunde Befestigungen bekannt geworden, die Spuren von Angriffen und Zerstörungen durch Brand/ Feuer aufweisen. Dabei kamen Fernwaffen zum Einsatz, Pfeil und Bogen sowie Schleuderkugeln und Speere. Jedoch scheinen solche Konflikte keine alltäglichen Ereignisse gewesen zu sein, da von den meisten Befestigungen keine Hinweise auf Konflikte oder Gewaltereignisse vorliegen.
Vorwort
(2019)
Foreword
(2019)
The large fortifi cation of Corneşti-larcuri is located on the Mureş River in Romania and comprises four rings of defensive ramparts. With the outermost rampart encircling a total area of 17.65 km2, Corneşti-larcuri is thus considered the largest Bronze Age fortification in Europe. New intensive research began in 2007 with the six-year project “Investigations on settlement structures and the chronology of the Late Bronze Age fortification of Corneşti-larcuri in Romanian Banat”, funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG). The project terminated in the autumn of 2017. Now the goal is to evaluate the data collected during the last eleven years and to develop the first syntheses. As part of the new excavations, a total of 109 radiocarbon datings from diff erent contexts (ramparts, ditches, pits, house structures, etc.) were obtained. The subsequent phase model based upon these data essentially refers to the dating of ramparts I and II and to pits associated with house contexts. Thus, it enables a site biography for Corneşti-larcuri to be outlined for the first time and four settlement phases to be distinguished.
Als 369 v. Chr. durch den thebanischen Feldherrn Epaminondas die Stadt Messene auf der südwestlichen Peloponnes als neue Hauptstadt des gerade von Sparta befreiten Messeniens gegründet wurde, markierte dies sowohl das Ende jahrhundertelanger Kriege, Unterdrückung und Aufstände als auch gleichzeitig den drohenden Beginn eines neuen Konfliktes, da einige griechische Stadtstaaten, allen voran natürlich Sparta, die Rechtmäßigkeit eines selbständigen Messeniens in Frage stellten. Die monumentale, direkt nach der Stadtgründung unter einem gewissen Zeitdruck, doch auf dem neuesten Stand der Befestigungstechnik errichtete Stadtmauer Messenes stellt daher eine äußerst notwendige Maßnahme der Konfliktvorbereitung dar. Doch zeigen auf der anderen Seite ihre bedeutenden repräsentativen Aspekte, dass sie gleichzeitig als Symbol der neugewonnenen Identität, des Selbstbewusstseins und der Standhaftigkeit der neuen Stadtbevölkerung und damit als Stein gewordenes Argument für das Recht der Messenier auf eine unabhängige Existenz diente. Auf diese Weise ist die Stadtmauer Messenes auch als ein vorausschauender Akt der Konfliktprävention zu sehen, der schließlich von Erfolg gekrönt war, da die Stadt sich behaupten konnte und über Jahrhunderte blühte und gedieh..
Conflicts are shaping our life and influencing most of our behaviour. In the recent years, conflict archaeology has developed into a growing sub-discipline. This article tries to go beyond the traditional concepts of conflict archaeology that mainly addressing violence. We advocate widening the view on conflicts by including different levels of conflict escalation as well as of conflict de-escalation. Archaeological indicators for all of these facets of conflicts are discussed. Here, we concentrate on fortifications which are sensitive indicators of historical, social, economic and cultural processes and hence are able to indicate different facets of conflicts and not only violence. In this context, we also consider territoriality as relevant, because it is a kind of regulation, preventing conflicts from further escalation. The article presents a simple scheme of conflict archaeology which extends the traditional approach and provides deeper insights in human behaviour and its rational.
Research on Bronze Age weapons from wet contexts in northern Europe often interprets those finds as structured deposits of a symbolic nature, placed in liminal environments that had special significance in social and religious terms. Much less consideration is given to direct or indirect connections with war and conflict in the competitive chiefdom polities of the Bronze Age. As territorial boundaries, rivers were obvious settings for conflict, with confrontations at fording points leading to weapon loss in battle. There may also have been intentional deposition connected to the death of a warrior at or near that location. River deposition may also signify the celebration of a military victory, involving a ritualized destruction of the weapons of the vanquished. They may also represent an assertion of territory or an expression of ritualized violence. Such scenarios illustrate how the use of weapons as funerary or votive offerings does not preclude a close association with warfare. The parallel phenomenon of hoarding in the same period may reflect a political climate in which it was necessary to hide valuables. This paper explores possible connections between the deposition of weapons and valuables in wet contexts and the landscape context of war in Ireland during the later Bronze Age, with implications for research in other parts of Europe.
The research focuses on magic - the practice of performing tricks and illusions on stage aiming at entertaining the audience. In the late XIX-early XX century magic achieved an outstanding social recognition and became an important artistic phenomenon. This study aims to analyze the work of the most prominent magicians of the late XIX-early XX centuries and to define the historical role of magicians in the history of culture and art.
Using methods of art history and cultural studies, I analyze the autobiographies of magicians, the literature on magic published during the period in question, and contemporary press. I approach the history of magic from three different perspectives: magic as a branch of show business, magic as a cultural phenomenon, and magic as a type of performing art. It allowed me to create a detailed account of magic as a social, cultural and artistic phenomenon.
I argue that magic became a highly influential cultural phenomenon of the late 19th- early 20th centuries in Great Britain that represented the idea of real magic on stage. Magic shows reflected a complex relationship between rational and magical thinking that existed in society and produced narratives about science and the supernatural.
Moreover, very few studies have focused on the question of defining magic as an art form. In the thesis, I analyzed the theoretical works on magic written by magicians and developed a framework for further research on magic from the perspective of the history of art.
The paper presents a reconsideration of settlement pattern and defensive systems in south-eastern Italy during the Bronze Age, on the ground of the archaeological data coming from the excavations at Coppa Nevigata. In particular, the transformations of the defensive lines of the settlement are discussed, which were strictly linked to both defensive and offensive strategies and their changes. Moreover, the paper seeks to examine some related problems, such as the possible origin for the model of complex fortification lines in southern Italy, the pattern(s) of fortified settlement in the Eastern Adriatic and matters related to the social organisation of the Bronze Age southern Italian communities that built the fortification lines.
Despite the fact that the fortification in Sântana-Cetatea Veche has been known since the 18th century and various local scholars have taken a direct interest in the site, the first excavations only started much later. The fortification was correctly attributed to the Bronze Age only in the second half of the 20th century. Until then, those interested in the issue of the great fortifications in Banat believed that the ramparts had been constructed during the Avar Period. New research on the fortification in Sântana was initiated in 2008. The northern side of the third fortification system was tested in 2009, and its construction system was documented on that occasion. The fortification system in question consisted of an earthen rampart, a wall made of wood and clay built upon the crest of the rampart, and a defense ditch. At the same time we noted that the erection of the earthen rampart had disturbed a cemetery in use in that area. The present article focuses on the dating of the third system of fortification excavated in 2009 and on the presentation of the contexts from which radiocarbon data have been collected. The results indicate that the cemetery disturbed by the construction of the fortification was used at the end of the 15th century BC and that the fortification was certainly in use during the 14th century BC.
Zu den zentralen Fähigkeiten, die im Rahmen eines musikwissenschaftlichen Studiums erworben werden, gehört die Verschriftlichung musikalischer Einsichten. Das eigene Hörverhalten zu reflektieren und dabei Hörerfahrungen schriftlich zu fixieren, ist ein wichtiges Teilziel innerhalb des langwierigen und komplexen Lernprozesses, der das Schreiben über Musik zum Inhalt hat. Studierende in der Entwicklung dieser Fähigkeit anzuleiten und zu unterstützen gehörte zu den Zielen zweier Lehrprojekte, die im Wintersemester 2015/16 am Institut für Musikwissenschaft der Goethe-Universität Frankfurt durchgeführt wurden und über die hier berichtet werden soll.
Beide Projekte fanden im Rahmen der propädeutischen Pflichtveranstaltung »Einführung in die musikalische Analyse« statt – das heißt im Seminar »Hören und Analysieren: Klaviermusik des 20. Jahrhunderts« von Marion Saxer. Die 32 TeilnehmerInnen belegten das Seminar innerhalb des ersten Studienjahres. Zu beiden Lehrprojekten wurde Datenmaterial erhoben und ausgewertet. Von je 20 Studierenden im Haupt- und Nebenfach liegen jeweils anonyme Rückläufe zu den Projekten vor.
Beide Lehrprojekte beanspruchen keinesfalls den Rang empirischer Untersuchungen, es handelt sich tatsächlich lediglich um erste »Sondierungen«, wie im Titel des Beitrags angedeutet, die neben der Anbahnung des Schreibens über Musik zugleich das Ziel verfolgten, etwas über die Hörweisen der Studienanfänger im Fach Musikwissenschaft zu erfahren. Einige Aspekte jener anfänglichen Sondierungen erscheinen jedoch so interessant, dass sie an dieser Stelle in die Diskussion um das Hören in der musikwissenschaftlichen Lehre eingebracht werden sollen.
Gegenstand der vorliegenden Arbeit ist die postulierte operationale Komplementarität von Selbstkonstruktion und Selbstorganisation. Den Ausgangspunkt der Überlegungen hierzu bilden die sich mehrenden Hinweise seitens der Neuro- und Kognitionswissenschaften, die auf die Wichtigkeit sozialer und kultureller Realitäten für die wissenschaftliche Auseinandersetzung mit Bewusstsein und speziell Selbstbewusstsein im Sinne von Metakognition deuten. Das zentrale Erkenntnisinteresse dieser Arbeit gilt dabei der Frage nach der Viabilität des Selbst. Theoriegrundlage ist damit das radikal-konstruktivistische Viabilitätskonzept, welches als instrumentale Perspektive die Gangbarkeit oder Funktionalität von Wirklichkeitskonstruktionen adressiert. Entscheidend ist damit nicht die Klärung des ontologischen Status des Selbst, nicht die Frage, was das Selbst ist, sondern wann oder wozu es ist. Selbstkonstruktion, so wird in dieser Arbeit grundlegend vorausgesetzt, vollzieht sich prinzipiell in Abhängigkeit der Konstruktion aller anderen Lebenszustände des Menschen. Verbunden damit ist die Grundannahme, dass Selbstkonstruktion aufgrund der operationalen Komplementarität zur Selbstorganisation nicht nur eine alleinige Angelegenheit des isolierten Individuums ist, sondern synchron in Mikro- und Makroebenen aller menschlichen Lebenszusammenhänge fließt. Entwicklungsgeschichtlich finden diese Zusammenhänge ihren Widerhall in Zwecksetzung und Antizipation und resultieren in der Erschließung neuer Existenzbereiche. „Selbstorganisation“ als kreative, selbstreferentielle Wahrnehmungstätigkeit äußert sich dabei in dem menschlichen Hinzufügen oder Verwerfen von Bedeutungszusammenhängen und der Konstruktion von Selektivität. Das „Verhältnis“ zwischen Selbstkonstruktion und Selbstorganisation definiert sich über koevolutionäre Entwicklungsprozesse und ist damit eine Dimension struktureller Kopplungen. Vor dem fachlichen Hintergrund der Kulturanthropologie versteht sich die vorliegende Arbeit als Beitrag zur holistischen Untersuchung von Veränderungsdynamiken menschlicher Selbstorganisation und den daran geknüpften Bedeutungskonstruktionen.
Im vorliegenden Artikel werden drei kürzlich entdeckte Depotfunde vorgestellt, die einen Einblick in die Ideologie der kriegerischen Häuptlingstümer der Spätbronzezeit in Ungarn geben. Darüber hinaus spezifizieren sie die Identität der führenden Krieger und stellen sie in eine neue Perspektive. Das Schwertdepot von Mezőberény ist ein Beispiel dafür, wie der Akt der Deponierung einem anscheinend unbedeutenden Teil einer Landschaft eine neue Bedeutung verleihen kann. Die Schwertdepots in dem endlosen Weideland spiegeln vermutlich die Bemühungen der Viehzüchter-Clans, die um die natürlichen Resourcen konkurrierten, wider, das von ihnen genutzte Gebiet auch symbolisch in Besitz zu nehmen. Die Zusammensetzung der Hortfunde aus Pázmándfalu zeigt eine enge Verbindung mit Grabbeigaben der Elitekrieger in Mitteleuropa und in den Alpen. Daher ist davon auszugehen, dass diese drei repräsentativen Fundkomplexe im Rahmen einer komplexen Zeremonie niedergelegt wurden, die indirekt mit dem Grabritus in Verbindung steht. Die Zusammensetzung und die Platzierung der Horte erlauben auch eine andere mögliche Interpretation: ein Grabritual in Verbindung mit dem Heroenkult. Das Beispiel der goldenen Beinschiene aus Gyálarét veranschaulicht den Prozess, in dem die Attribute der Krieger in der transzendenten Sphäre Bedeutung erlangen: in der Welt der mythischen Vorfahren, Seelen und Götter. Die Einzigartigkeit der goldenen Beinschiene impliziert, dass dieses Stück den sozialen Status seines Besitzers repräsentierte; zudem könnte es ein mit spirituellen Kräften durchdrungenes Objekt gewesen sein, das eine besondere Behandlung erforderte. Es ist auch möglich, dass die Beinschiene keiner lebenden Person gehörte, sondern stattdessen als Teil einer Kultstatue versteckt worden ist.
Panel discussion
(2019)
In der Schachthöhle mit dem Namen Mušja jama/Fliegenhöhle bei Škocjan im Hinterland der Triester Bucht an der nordöstlichen Adria sind mehrere Hunderte von Metallfunden zu Tage gekommen, überwiegend aus Bronze, einige wenige auch aus Eisen. Ihr Erhaltungsstand ist sehr unterschiedlich. Überwiegend handelt es sich um Reste von prachtvollen Waffen und Bronzegefäßen, während Elemente des Trachtzubehörs und andere Geräte unterrepräsentiert sind. Unter den Funden finden sich nur wenige Objekte lokaler Provenienz, es überwiegen erstaunlicherweise solche, deren Verbreitungsradius weit über die Region um das Caput Adriae hinausgeht, manche kommen sogar von sehr fern. Anhand der Verbreitungskarten von einigen kennzeichnenden Waffentypen erweist sich Škocjan als ein bemerkenswerter Schnittpunkt im „globalen“ Sinne der europäischen Urnenfelderkultur, aber auch noch in der frühen Eisenzeit. Vergleicht man z. B. insgesamt die Verbreitung von Glocken- und Kegelhelmen gegenüber der von Kammhelmen, zeigt sich eine Zweiteilung zwischen der östlichen und westlichen Ausrüstung der Elitekrieger in Europa, wobei die Trennlinie vom Caput Adriae, d. h. von Škocjan, entlang der Ostalpen und Elbe bis zur Ostsee verläuft. Man kann annehmen, dass es sich in der Mušja jama/Fliegenhöhle um die Weihungen mehrer Kriegsbeuten an Gottheiten martialischen Charakters handelte, wobei sich offenbar im Laufe der Zeit das Glücksrad zwischen den östlichen und westlichen Akteuren – Feldherren – gedreht hat.
In this paper I assess two archaeological phenomena for Bronze to Iron Age Britain: the expanding scale of conflict over this period and the practice of what is often called deviant burial, and I consider their possible connection. Such burials may relate to a wider pattern of social violence, given that community setbacks need to be explained away, perhaps requiring scapegoats to take the blame, who met their death as a result of being identified as ‘the enemy within’. Although burials with weaponry occurred in the Early Bronze Age, there is little evidence of conflict and few deviant burials. The Later Bronze Age and the Iron Age, by contrast, provide significant evidence at varying scales of both warfare and deviant burial practices.
Geoarchaeological reconstructions of land-use changes may help to reveal driving cultural factors and incentives behind these processes and relate them to supra-regional economic and political developments. This is particularly true in the context of complete abandonment of a settlement. Here we present a case study from the site of Faule Pfütze, a small catchment in the Eastern Ore Mountains (Saxony). The historical record of this site is confined to the report of a settlement called Hohenwalde in 1404 CE and two later references to the then-abandoned settlement in 1492 and 1524 CE in this area. Combined geoarchaeological studies allowed for the reconstruction of several phases of land use. While a first phase of alluvial sedimentation occurred during the late 12th century, archaeological evidence for a permanent settlement is absent during this period. The onset of settlement activity is identified during the late 14th century and included a hitherto unknown massive stone building. Mining features are present nearby and are dated to the early 15th century. The local palynological record shows evidence for reforestation during the mid 15th century and thereby corroborates the time of abandonment indicated by written sources. These processes are discussed in the context of a local political conflict (Dohna Feud) leading to the redistribution of properties and the development of a mining economy during this time. Later land use from the mid 16th century onwards appears restricted to charcoal production, probably in the context of smelting works operating in nearby Schmiedeberg as indicated by rising lead concentrations in the alluvial record.
Geophysical prospection and excavations show that the heavily fortified Teleac hillfort was densely occupied with a population reaching the low thousands. In this article it is argued that Teleac was a local political centre that acted as a hub for transportation and trade in a region that is rich in mineral resources. Recent investigations also reveal that Teleac was attacked in the late 10th century in an event that breached and destroyed the formidable northern defensive system. This attack suggests that the level of military threat was quite severe in the eastern Carpathian Basin. The attacking forces must have had significant offensive capabilities in order to tackle Teleac’s defences. It is also a strong indication that not only Teleac, but contemporary fortified settlements in the surrounding region were at least in part erected to resist serious military threats.
Während der Mittelbronzezeit bildet sich in Osthessen mit der Fulda-Werra-Gruppe ein eigenständiger Kulturraum heraus, der mit den Nachbarräumen in kulturellem Austausch steht. Am Übergang zur späten Bronzezeit ist ein massiver Wandel zu beobachten. Wie in weiten Teilen Europas kommt es auch in Osthessen zu einem Wechsel von der überhügelten Körperbestattung zum Brandflachgrab. In dieser Zeit zerbricht in Osthessen der einheitliche Kulturraum, stattdessen machen sich starke Einflüsse aus den Nachbarräumen bemerkbar, die offensichtlich auch mit Einwanderungen einzelner Bevölkerungsgruppen in Verbindung stehen. Der Übergang zur Eisenzeit gestaltet sich fließend. Einerseits endet die Befestigung auf dem Haimberg spätestens in dieser Zeit, andererseits werden mehrere Gräberfelder offensichtlich durchgehend belegt. Die Waffenfunde auf dem Sängersberg zeigen an, dass die verschiedenen Umbrüche auch in Osthessen offensichtlich mit bewaffneten Konflikten verbunden waren, deren Umfang jedoch bisher ebenso wenig bestimmbar ist, wie Herkunft und Zusammensetzung der Kontrahenten.
This dissertation is an investigation of pitch accent, or lexical tone, in standard Croatian. The first chapter presents an in-depth overview of the history of the Croatian language, its relationship to Serbo-Croatian, its dialect groups and pronunciation variants, and general phonology. The second chapter explains the difference between various types of prosodic prominence and describes systems of pitch accent in various languages from different parts of the world: Yucatec Maya, Lithuanian and Limburgian. Following is a detailed account of the history of tone in Serbo-Croatian and Croatian, the specifics of its tonal system, intonational phonology and finally, a review of the most prominent phonetic investigations of tone in that language.
The focal point of this dissertation is a production experiment, in which ten native speakers of Croatian from the region of Slavonia were recorded. The material recorded included a diverse selection of monosyllabic, bisyllabic, trisyllabic and quadrisyllabic words, containing all four accents of standard Croatian: short falling, long falling, short rising and long rising. Each target word was spoken in initial, medial and final positions of natural Croatian sentences. This research fills several gaps in the existing literature. Namely, the production of tone was investigated in words with a syllabic /r̩/, in pretonal syllables and in non-initial context. Acoustic parameters measured included duration, F0 in every 10% of the nucleus duration, overall pitch, pitch range and pitch peak alignment.
Results showed that differences between falling and rising accents in Croatian are produced mainly with tonal parameters and that the most salient features were pitch peak alignment and overall pitch. The difference between long and short accents was primarily durational and optionally tonal. Words produced in initial and medial sentence positions had a rising contour in their accented syllable, while in the final, segments were usually falling.