Refine
Year of publication
- 2012 (88) (remove)
Document Type
- Article (58)
- Doctoral Thesis (22)
- Book (4)
- Conference Proceeding (3)
- Part of a Book (1)
Has Fulltext
- yes (88)
Is part of the Bibliography
- no (88)
Keywords
- Bioenergetics (2)
- Electron Transfer (2)
- NMR (2)
- Spectroscopy (2)
- radiation-induced nanostructures (2)
- 9-aminoacridine (1)
- Aquaporin (1)
- Attenuated Total Reflection (1)
- Bacterial Protein Kinases (1)
- Bacterial Protein Phosphatases (1)
Institute
- Biochemie und Chemie (88) (remove)
Molecules of the title compound, C20H14O2, show approximate C s symmetry with the approximate mirror plane perpendicular to the central ring. The torsion angles about the acyclic bonds are 30.05 (15) and 30.77 (15)° in one half compared to −36.62 (14) and −18.60 (15)° in the other half of the molecule. The central aromatic ring makes dihedral angles of 47.78 (4) and 51.68 (3)° with the two terminal rings.
In the title compound, C27H37N2 +·Br−·2CH2Cl2, both the cation and the anion are located on a crystallographic mirror plane. Both of the dichloromethane solvent molecules show a disorder across a mirror plane over two equally occupied positions. In the crystal, the cations are connnected to the bromide ions via C—H[cdots, three dots, centered]Br hydrogen bonds.
In the title compound, C27H37N2 +·Cl−·2CH2Cl2, the cation and the anion are each located on a crystallographic mirror plane. Both of the dichloromethane solvent molecules show a disorder across a mirror plane over two equally occupied positions. Additionally, one isopropyl group is also disordered. In the crystal, the cations are connected to the chloride ions via C—H[cdots, three dots, centered]Cl hydrogen bonds.
The title co-crystal, C9H9NO2·C6H6O2, is composed of one 2,6-diacetylpyridine molecule and one resorcinol molecule as the asymmetric unit. In the 2,6-diacetylpyridine molecule, the two carbonyl groups are antiperiplanar to the pyridine N atom. In the crystal, the 2,6-diacetylpyridine and resorcinol molecules are connected by two O-H...O hydrogen bonds, forming planar chains of alternating components running along [120].
The aromatic rings in the title compound, C13H8ClNO4, enclose a dihedral angle of 39.53 (3)°. The nitro group is almost coplanar with the ring to which it is attached [dihedral angle = 4.31 (1)°]. In the crystal, molecules are connected by C-H...O hydrogen bonds into chains running along [001]. Key indicators: single-crystal X-ray study; T = 173 K; mean σ(C–C) = 0.002 A°; R factor = 0.044; wR factor = 0.105; data-to-parameter ratio = 18.9.
A new polymorph of the title compound, [Pd2(C8H18P)2(C8H19P)2], has been found. It belongs to the triclinic P-1 space group, whereas the known form [Leoni, Sommovigo, Pasquali, Sabatino & Braga (1992 [triangle]), J. Organomet. Chem. 423, 263–270] crystallizes in the monoclinic C2/c space group. The title compound features a dinuclear palladium complex with a planar central Pd2(μ-P)2 core (r.m.s. deviation = 0.003 Å). The Pd—Pd distance of 2.5988 (5) Å is within the range of a PdI—PdI bond. The molecules of both polymorphs are located on a crystallographic centre of inversion. The molecular conformations of the two polymorphs are essentially identical. The crystal packing patterns, on the other hand, are slightly different.
Background: Gastrulation is a key transition in embryogenesis; it requires self-organized cellular coordination, which has to be both robust to allow efficient development and plastic to provide adaptability. Despite the conservation of gastrulation as a key event in Metazoan embryogenesis, the morphogenetic mechanisms of self-organization (how global order or coordination can arise from local interactions) are poorly understood.
Results: We report a modular structure of cell internalization in Caenorhabditis elegans gastrulation that reveals mechanisms of self-organization. Cells that internalize during gastrulation show apical contractile flows, which are correlated with centripetal extensions from surrounding cells. These extensions converge to seal over the internalizing cells in the form of rosettes. This process represents a distinct mode of monolayer remodeling, with gradual extrusion of the internalizing cells and simultaneous tissue closure without an actin purse-string. We further report that this self-organizing module can adapt to severe topological alterations, providing evidence of scalability and plasticity of actomyosin-based patterning. Finally, we show that globally, the surface cell layer undergoes coplanar division to thin out and spread over the internalizing mass, which resembles epiboly.
Conclusions: The combination of coplanar division-based spreading and recurrent local modules for piecemeal internalization constitutes a system-level solution of gradual volume rearrangement under spatial constraint. Our results suggest that the mode of C. elegans gastrulation can be unified with the general notions of monolayer remodeling and with distinct cellular mechanisms of actomyosin-based morphogenesis.
The adaptive immune system protects against daily infections and malignant transformation. In this, the translocation of antigenic peptides by the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP) into the ER lumen is an essential step in the antigen presentation by MHC I molecules. The heterodimeric ATP-binding cassette transporter (ABC) TAP consist of the two halftransporters TAP1 and TAP2. Each monomer contains an N-terminal transmembrane domain (TMD) and a conserved C-terminal nucleotide-binding domain (NBD). Together, the TMDs build the translocation core and the NBDs bind and hydrolyze ATP, energizing the peptide transport. TAP features an asymmetry in the two ATP-binding sites that are built of several conserved motifs. One motif is the D-loop with the consensus sequence SALD. The highly conserved aspartate of the D-loop of TAP1 reaches into the canonic ATP-binding site and contacts the Walker A motif and the H-loop of the opposite NBD, while the Asp of D-loop of TAP2 is part of the non-canonic ATP-binding site.
To examine this ABC transport complex in mechanistic detail, a purification and reconstitution procedure was established with the function of TAP being preserved. The heterodimeric TAP complex was purified via a His10-tag at TAP1 in a 1:1 ratio of the subunits. Nucleotide binding to the purified transporter was elucidated by tryptophan quenching assays and the affinity constants for MgADP and MgATP were determined to be 1.0 μM and 0.7 μM, respectevely. In addition, the TAP complex shows strict coupling between peptide binding and ATP hydrolysis, revealing no basal ATPase activity in the absence of peptides. Furthermore, TAP was reconstituted into proteoliposomes and the activity was tested by peptide transport and ATP hydrolysis. Interestingly, the kinetic parameters of the transporter in the reconstituted state are comparable to the data gained for TAP in microsomes.
To characterize the functional importance of the D-loop, D-loop mutants of either TAP1 or TAP2 were analyzed. Strikingly, TAP containing a mutated D-loop in TAP1 (D674A) shows an ATP-hydrolysis independent peptide translocation. Accordingly, the MHC I surface expression is similar to the wildtype situation. However, the same mutation in TAP2 (D638A) results in an ATPase dependent peptide transport similar to wildtype, whereas TAP containing mutations in both subunits leads to an inactive transporter. Although all D-loop mutants showed no altered peptide binding activity, the TAP1 mutant is inactive in peptide-stimulated ATPase activity. Strikingly, ATP or ADP binding is strictly required for the peptide translocation. Experiments carried out in proteoliposomes demonstrate that wildtype TAP can export peptides against their gradient when low peptide concentrations are offered. In contrast, the D674A mutant can facilitate peptide translocation along their concentration gradient in the two directions. At high peptide concentrations, TAP is trapped in a transport incompetent state induced by trans-inhibition. In conclusion, a TAP mutant that uncouples solute translocation from ATP hydrolysis was created. Since this passive substrate movement is strictly dependent on binding of ATP or ADP, an active transporter was turned into a “nucleotide-gated facilitator”.
In a cysteine cross-linking approach the conformational changes of TAP during peptide transport and the flexibility of the nucleotide binding domains were examined. Single cysteines were introduced in the D-loops of TAP1 and TAP2. Cross-linking by copper-phenantroline (CuPhe) was possible for all combinations. However, by adding ATP, ADP or peptide to the TAP complex no differences in the cross-linking efficiency were detected. By CuPhe cross-linking TAP was trapped in a conformation, in which the peptide binding site was not accessible. To complete a transport cycle, a flexibility of at least 17.8 Å of the NBDs is needed, since TAP cross-linked by CuPhe (2.0 Å) or bismaleimidoethane (BMOE, 8.0 Å) was transport inactive but when TAP was cross-linked by 1,11-bismaleimido-triethyleneglycol (BM[PEG]3, 17.8 Å) transport activity was preserved.
Analyse und Vorhersage von Kristallstrukturen tetraederförmiger Moleküle und fehlgeordneter Phasen
(2012)
Die Kristallstrukturen tetraederförmiger EX4-Moleküle mit E = C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb und X = F, Cl, Br, I konnten in sieben Strukturtypen eingeteilt werden. In fast allen Verbindungen nehmen die Halogenatome eine verzerrte Kugelpackung (ccp, hcp, bcc, cp) ein. Die E-Atome besetzen in den dichtesten Kugelpackungen 1/8 aller Tetraederlücken, wobei sich für diese Atome ebenfalls eine Anordnung wie für verzerrte Kugelpackungen ergibt (cp, ccp, hcp). In den anderen Fällen (bcc, cp für die Anordnung der Halogenatome) ergibt sich für die Anordnung der E-Atome selbst ebenfalls eine verzerrte Kugelpackung (bcc, s). Dabei steht s für die Anordnung der E-Atome analog der Schwefelatome im Pyrit (FeS2). Jeder Strukturtyp unterscheidet sich in der Art der kürzesten Halogen-Halogen-Wechselwirkungen. Die in der Literatur für halogenierte organische Verbindungen beschriebenen Typen der Wechselwirkung lassen sich auch bei den EX4-Verbindungen finden. Die E-X-X-Winkel liegen in einem Bereich von 80-100° und 130-160° und sind damit etwas kleiner als für die halogenierten organischen Verbindungen. Mit Hilfe von Gitterenergieminimierungen konnten diverse potentielle Polymorphe für die EX4-Verbindungen vorhergesagt werden.
Eine vollständige Kristallstrukturvorhersage wurde für SiBr4 durchgeführt. Für diese Vorhersage wurden die Van-der-Waals-Parameter neu bestimmt. Dazu wurde das Br-Br-Potential mit Hilfe von Vergleichsrechnungen an den beiden experimentellen Strukturen des GeBr4 in den Raumgruppentypen Pa3, Z = 8 (s/ccp), und P21/c, Z = 4 (hcp/hcp), optimiert. Für die Vorhersage des SiBr4 konnten zwei der vorhergesagten Strukturen durch extern durchgeführte Kristallisationsexperimente bestätigt werden. Eine Hochtemperaturmodifikation kristallisiert oberhalb von 168K im Raumgruppentyp Pa3, Z = 8 im Strukturtyp s/ccp. Diese Struktur konnte bei der Vorhersage auf Rang 9 gefunden werden. Die Tieftemperaturmodifikation, die unterhalb von 168K vorliegt, kristallisiert im Raumgruppentyp P21/c, Z = 4 (Strukturtyp hcp/hcp). Diese Struktur hat Rang 4 der Vorhersage. Die vorhergesagten und experimentellen Strukturen zeigen nur geringe Abweichungen voneinander.
Für die tetraederförmigen E(CH3)4-Moleküle wurden für Tetramethylsilan und Tetramethylgerman vollständige Kristallstrukturvorhersagen durchgeführt. Die energetisch günstigste Struktur ist für beide Verbindungen im Raumgruppentyp Pa3 mit Z = 8 zu finden. Die energetisch zweitgünstigste Struktur hat den Raumgruppentyp Pnma mit Z = 4. Für Tetramethylsilan konnten die Strukturen mit Rang 1 und 2 experimentell bestätigt werden. Eine Hochdruckmodifikation des Tetramethylsilans kristallisiert im Raumgruppentyp Pa3 mit Z = 8. Diese Struktur entspricht der berechneten energetisch günstigsten Struktur auf Rang eins. Ihr konnte der Strukturtyp s/ccp zugeordnet werden. Mit Tieftemperatur-Röntgenpulverbeugungsexperimenten konnte eine Tieftemperaturmodifikation bei T = 100 K im Raumgruppentyp Pnma, Z = 4, mit Strukturtyp ccp/hcp gefunden werden.
Gitterenergieberechnungen wurden für die Strukturanalysen von drei fehlgeordneten Phasen eingesetzt. Experimentell bestimmte Kristallstrukturen von Azulen und Pigment Red 194 haben den Raumgruppentyp P21/c, Z = 2. Die Moleküle befinden sich dabei auf einer Punktlage mit Inversionssymmetrie. Da beide Moleküle kein Inversionszentrum aufweisen, kommt es zu einer Orientierungsfehlordnung. Für die rechnerische Analyse der Fehlordnung wurden jeweils sechs geordnete Modelle ausgehend von den fehlgeordneten Strukturen erstellt, die möglichst wenige Moleküle pro Elemenarzelle aufweisen sollten. Gitterenergieberechnungen und die Auswertung der Boltzmann-Verteilung zeigten, dass in bei beiden Kristallstrukturen eine statistische Fehlordnung der Moleküle vorliegt, die sich aus mehreren geordneten Modellen aufbauen lässt. Bei Azulen ist eine geordnete Struktur im Raumgruppentyp Pa, Z = 4, energetisch etwas günstiger als die anderen Modell. Für Pigment Red 194 zeigte sich, dass die Fehlordnung unter der Annahme, dass nur die berechneten Modelle die fehlgeordnete Struktur bilden, mit über 99%iger Wahrscheinlichkeit aus den vier energetisch günstigsten Modellen Pc, Z = 2, P21, Z = 2, P21/c, Z = 4 und Pc, Z = 4 besteht.
Die dritte untersuchte fehlgeordnete Struktur ist die des Natrium-p-chlorphenylsulfonat-Monohydrats. Die Fehlordnung bezieht sich hier nur auf die Phenylringe, die dort mit einer Besetzung von 50% zueinander senkrecht stehen. Mit Hilfe der Order-Disorder-Theorie konnten zwei geordnete Modelle im Raumgruppentyp P21/c und ein weiteres geordnetes Modell im Raumgruppentyp C1c1 (Z = 16, Z'= 2) aufgestellt werden. Gitterenergieminimierungen dieser Modelle zeigten, dass sich die Fehlordnung statistisch aus allen drei Modellen zusammensetzt. Das energetisch günstigste geordnete Modell im Raumgruppentyp P21/c, Z = 8 (Z' = 2), konnte als verzwillingte Struktur aus Einkristalldaten bestätigt werden.
The enantioselective synthesis of 2-aryl-substituted 2,3-dihydroquinolin-4-ones, a class of heterocyclic compounds with interesting biological activities, has been achieved through a Brønsted acidcatalyzed enantioselective intramolecular Michael addition. The products are available in moderate to high yields and with good enantioselectivities.
Atomic-level analyses of non-native protein ensembles constitute an important aspect of protein folding studies to reach a more complete understanding of how proteins attain their native form exhibiting biological activity. Previously, formation of hydrophobic clusters in the 6 M urea-denatured state of an ultrafast folding mini-protein known as TC5b from both photo-CIDNP NOE transfer studies and FCS measurements was observed. Here, we elucidate the structural properties of this mini-protein denatured in 6 M urea performing 15N NMR relaxation studies together with a thorough NOE analysis. Even though our results demonstrate that no elements of secondary structure persist in the denatured state, the heterogeneous distribution of R2 rate constants together with observing pronounced heteronuclear NOEs along the peptide backbone reveals specific regions of urea-denatured TC5b exhibiting a high degree of structural rigidity more frequently observed for native proteins. The data are complemented with studies on two TC5b point mutants to verify the importance of hydrophobic interactions for fast folding. Our results corroborate earlier findings of a hydrophobic cluster present in urea-denatured TC5b comprising both native and non-native contacts underscoring their importance for ultra rapid folding. The data assist in finding ways of interpreting the effects of pre-existing native and/or non-native interactions on the ultrafast folding of proteins; a fact, which might have to be considered when defining the starting conditions for molecular dynamics simulation studies of protein folding.
Attenuated NOX2 expression impairs ROS production during the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis
(2012)
Background: The multicomponent phagocytic NADPH oxidase produces reactive oxygen species (ROS) after activation by microorganisms or inflammatory mediators. In the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis, macrophages are alternatively activated by contact with apoptotic cells or their secretion products. This inhibits NADPH oxidase and leads to attenuated ROS production and furthermore contributes among others to a hyporeactive host defense. Due to this immune paralysis, sepsis patients suffer from recurrent and secondary infections. We focused on the catalytic subunit of NADPH oxidase, the transmembrane protein NOX2. We assume that after induction of sepsis the expression of NOX2 is reduced and hence ROS production is decreased.
Methods: We induced polymicrobial sepsis in mice by cecal ligation and puncture. The ability of peritoneal macrophages (PMs) to produce ROS was determined by FACS via hydroethidine assay. NOX2 expression of PMs was determined by western blot and qPCR. To elucidate the mechanism causing mRNA destabilization, we performed in vitro experiments using J774 macrophages. To obtain an alternatively activated phenotype, macrophages were stimulated with conditioned medium from apoptotic T cells (CM). By luciferase assays we figured out a 3'UTR-dependent regulation of NOX2 mRNA stability. Assuming that a protein is involved in the mRNA degradation, we performed a RNA pulldown with biotinylated NOX2-3'UTR constructs followed by mass spectrometry. We verified the role of SYNCRIP by siRNA approach. Additionally, we overexpressed NOX2 in J774 cells and analyzed the ROS production (w/wo CM treatment) by FACS.
Results: We found an impaired expression of NOX2 at RNA and protein level along with decreased ROS production after induction of sepsis in mice as well as stimulating J774 macrophages with CM of apoptotic T cells. This is due to a time-dependent NOX2 mRNA degradation depending on SYNCRIP, a RNA-binding protein, which stabilizes NOX2 mRNA through binding to its 3'UTR under normal conditions. In line, knockdown of SYNCRIP also decreases NOX2 mRNA expression. We assume that a CM-dependent modification or degradation of SYNCRIP prevents its stabilizing function. As the overexpression of NOX2 restores ROS production of CM-treated J774 cells, we assume that NOX2 expression is crucial for maintaining NADPH activity during the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis.
Conclusion: Our data imply a regulatory impact of SYNCRIP on NOX2 stability during the late phase of sepsis. Therefore, further understanding of the regulation of NADPH oxidase could lead to the design of a therapy to reconstitute NADPH oxidase function, finally improving immune function in sepsis patients.
The C. elegans nervous system is particularly well suited for optogenetic analyses of circuit function: Essentially all connections have been mapped, and light can be directed at the neuron of interest in the freely moving, transparent animals, while behavior is observed. Thus, different nodes of a neuronal network can be probed for their role in controlling a particular behavior, using different optogenetic tools for photo-activation or –inhibition, which respond to different colors of light. As neurons may act in concert or in opposing ways to affect a behavior, one would further like to excite these neurons concomitantly, yet independent of each other. In addition to the blue-light activated Channelrhodopsin-2 (ChR2), spectrally red-shifted ChR variants have been explored recently. Here, we establish the green-light activated ChR chimera C1V1 (from Chlamydomonas and Volvox ChR1′s) for use in C. elegans. We surveyed a number of red-shifted ChRs, and found that C1V1-ET/ET (E122T; E162T) works most reliable in C. elegans, with 540–580 nm excitation, which leaves ChR2 silent. However, as C1V1-ET/ET is very light sensitive, it still becomes activated when ChR2 is stimulated, even at 400 nm. Thus, we generated a highly efficient blue ChR2, the H134R; T159C double mutant (ChR2-HR/TC). Both proteins can be used in the same animal, in different neurons, to independently control each cell type with light, enabling a further level of complexity in circuit analyses.
Biochemical and functional analysis of the ubiquitin binding properties of the NF-κB regulator NEMO
(2012)
Posttranslationale Modifikationen regulieren wesentliche Eigenschaften von Proteinen, wie z. B. Lokalisation, Konformation, Aktivität, Stabilität und Interaktionsfähigkeit. Eine besondere Form der Proteinmodifikation ist die Ubiquitylierung, bei der das kleine Protein Ubiquitin mit seinem C-Terminus kovalent an ein Substratprotein gebunden wird.
Die am besten untersuchte Funktion der Ubiquitylierung ist die Markierung eines Substrates für den Abbau durch das Proteasom. In den letzten Jahren wurde jedoch entdeckt, dass Ubiquitylierung in vielen Bereichen der Zelle eine wichtige Rolle spielt. Dazu gehören der Transport von Vesikeln, die Reparatur von DNA-Schäden und zelluläre Signalübertragung. Ubiquitin kann verschieden-artige Ketten bilden, indem ein Ubiquitin an eines der sieben Lysine (K6, K11, K27, K29, K33, K48, K63) oder den N-Terminus eines anderen gebunden wird. Diese unterschiedlichen Kettentypen regulieren verschiedene Prozesse. Z. B. dienen K48-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten als Signal für den proteasomalen Abbau, wohingegen über K63 verknüpfte Ketten hauptsächlich eine Rolle bei Signalübertragungen spielen.
Die meisten Funktionen die durch Ubiquitylierung reguliert werden, werden durch Ubiquitinrezeptoren vermittelt, die eine Ubiquitinbindedomäne (UBD) besitzen. Manche UBDs binden selektiv nur einen Ubiquitinkettentyp und sind somit in der Lage gezielt Prozesse regulieren zu können, indem sie nur durch diesen speziellen Kettentyp aktiviert werden.
Das Protein NEMO ist ein Ubiquitinrezeptor, dessen UBD UBAN selektiv bestimmte Ubiquitinketten bindet. NEMO spielt eine zentrale Rolle bei der Aktivierung der Transkriptionsfaktorfamilie NF-κB, indem es den IKK-Kinasekomplex reguliert. Dieser Kinasekomplex sorgt durch die Phosphorylierung des NF-κB-Inhibitors IκBα für dessen proteasomalen Abbau, wodurch schließlich NF-κB aktiviert wird. Die NF-κB-Aktivierung kann u. a. durch den TNF-Rezeptor (TNFR) induziert werden. Am aktivierten TNFR werden viele Proteine durch verschiedene Ubiquitinketten modifiziert. Bisher wurde angenommen, dass die spezifische Bindung von NEMO an K63-verknüpfte Ubiquitinketten ausschlaggebend für die Aktivierung von IKK ist. Jedoch spielen lineare Ubiquitinketten, die über den N-Terminus verknüpft sind, auch eine wichtige Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB und die UBAN von NEMO hat eine sehr hohe Affinität zu linearen Ubiquitinketten.
Um die genauen Vorgänge zu verstehen, die zur Aktivierung von NF-κB am TNFR führen, ist es nötig, zu analysieren, welche Proteine mit welchen Ubiquitinketten modifiziert werden und welche Ubiquitinrezeptoren daran binden.
In dieser Studie sollte detailliert untersucht werden, mit welchen Ubiquitin-ketten NEMO bevorzugt interagiert. Dazu wurden in vitro-Bindungsstudien mit bakteriell aufgereinigtem NEMO und verschiedenen Ubiquitinketten durchgeführt. Des Weiteren sollte geprüft werden, wie die Bindung von NEMO an bestimmte Ubiquitinketten die Aktivierung von NF-κB reguliert.
Dabei ergab sich, dass sowohl NEMO in voller Länge, als auch die UBAN, bevorzugt mit linearen Ubiquitinketten interagieren, wohingegen die Interaktion von NEMO mit anderen Ubiquitinketten relativ schwach ist. Ausgehend von einer Kristallstruktur eines Komplexes aus der NEMO-UBAN und linearem di-Ubiquitin, wurden NEMO-Mutanten generiert, die seletkiv die Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten verhindern, während die schwache Bindung von NEMO an längere K63-verknüpfte Ketten erhalten blieb. Um die Relevanz der Interaktion von NEMO mit linearen Ubiquitinketten für die Aktivierung von NF κB zu überprüfen, wurden diese NEMO-Mutanten dann verwendet um Zellen die kein NEMO exprimieren zu rekonstituieren. Nach Stimulation dieser Zellen mit TNFα wurde NF-κB kaum aktiviert, womit gezeigt werden konnte, dass NEMO gezielt an lineare Ubiquitinketten binden muss, um NF-κB zu aktivieren. Zusätzlich zu seiner Rolle bei der Aktivierung von NF-κB ist NEMO ein wichtiger Inhibitor der durch den TNFR induzierten Apoptose. In dieser Studie wurde gezeigt, dass diese Apoptoseinhibierung abhängig von der Bindung von NEMO an lineare Ubiquitinketten ist, da die Zellen die NEMO-Mutanten exprimierten, die keine linearen Ketten binden können, durch Apoptose starben, währen Wildtyp-Zellen überlebten.
Zusammenfassend konnte in dieser Studie gezeigt werden, dass NEMO bevorzugt und mit vergleichsweise hoher Affinität an lineare Ubiquitinketten bindet und dass diese spezifische Bindung wichtig für die Inhibierung von TNFR-induzierter Apoptose sowie für die Aktivierung von NF-κB ist.
The universal biological energy currency adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is synthesized by the F1Fo-ATP synthase in most living organisms. The overall structure and function of F-type ATPases is conserved in the different organisms. The F1Fo-ATP synthase consist of two domains; the soluble F1 complex has the subunit stoichiometry α3β3γδε and the membrane embedded Fo complex consists of subunits ab2c10-15 in its simplest form found in bacteria. F1 and Fo both function as reversible rotary motors that are connected by a central stalk (γε) and a peripheral stalk (b2δ).
For ATP synthesis, the electrochemical energy formed by a proton or sodium ion gradient is required. The ion translocation across the Fo subcomplex induces torque in the motor part of the enzyme (cnγε), which causes conformational changes in the α3β3 domain leading to ATP synthesis from ADP and inorganic phosphate (Pi) catalyzed in the β-subunits. ATP hydrolysis causes a reverse torque in the Fo subcomplex triggering uphill ion translocation from cytoplasm to periplasm, and the enzyme functions as an ion pump.
The ATP synthesis mechanism is well understood, since several high-resolution structures of F1 are available. In contrast, the ion translocation mechanism across the membrane, mediated by the Fo subcomplex, is not understood in its structural detail.
Subunit a and the c-ring form an ion pathway, but subunit b is needed to form an active ion translocation pathway in both H+- and Na+-dependent systems. Several high-resolution structures of c-rings have provided insights in the ion translocation mechanism. The different ion translocation models based on biochemical, biophysical and structural analysis are in agreement in the fact that ions are translocated through a periplasmic ion access pathway in subunit a to the middle of the membrane and there to the binding site of a c-subunit. After almost a whole rotation of the c-ring the ion returns into the a-c interface, where it can be released to the cytoplasm. In the different models the cytoplasmic access pathway has been proposed to be located in subunit a, at the a-c interface or within the c-ring. The driving force of torque generation has been proposed to be the pH gradient or membrane potential. Several biochemical studies show that a conserved arginine in helix four of subunit a (R226 in Ilyobacter tartaricus or R210 in Escherichia coli)plays a critical role in the ion translocation. The arginine has been proposed to function as an electrostatic separator between the cytoplasmic and periplasmic pathways and as a mediator of the ion exchange into the c-ring ion-binding site.
Structural data of a related enzyme (V1Vo-ATPase from Thermus thermophilus) has provided insight into the helical arrangement of the ion translocating subunits I and Lring (related to subunit a and the c-ring). These structures indicated a small interface between subunit I and the L-ring, and two four-helix bundles in the N-terminal domain of subunit I were proposed to build the periplasmic and cytoplasmic ion pathways. To comprehend the ion-translocation and torque generation mechanism in F1Fo-ATP synthase, structural data of an intact a-c complex is needed.
The goal of this work was to obtain structural data of subunit a, most preferably in a complex with the c-ring or additionally with subunit b. Therefore, a new purification procedure for the I. tartaricus Fo-subcomplex, heterologously expressed in E. coli cells, was established. The purified Fo was characterized biochemically and by Laserinduced liquid bead ion desorption mass spectrometry (LILBID-MS). These analyses showed that pure and completely assembled Fo containing all its subunits in the correct stoichiometry (ab2c11) was obtained. The purified Fo complex was stable at 4°C for several months and at room temperature in the presence of lipids for several weeks. A lipid analysis was performed by thin-layer chromatography (TLC) to investigate the qualitative lipid composition of I. tartaricus whole lipid extract and various I. tartaricus F1Fo isolates. The whole lipid extract contained PC, PG and PE lipids and probably cardiolipin. PC, PG and PE lipids were bound to wild type I. tartaricus F1Fo, whereas recombinant I. tartaricus F1Fo did not have any bound lipids, but was able to bind the synthetic lipids POPC and POPG if they were provided during the purification.
For subsequent structural studies the purified Fo was subjected to two-dimensional (2D) crystallization trials. Vesicles and sheets tightly packed with protein and crystals with a rare plane group for I. tartaricus c11 (p121) were obtained. The c-ring was visible in the CCD images, and immunogold-labeling revealed the presence of the His-tagged a-subunit in the reconstituted vesicles. Furthermore, atomic force microscopy (AFM) imaging showed protein densities next to the c-rings, which protruded less from the membrane (0.4±0.1 nm) than the c-ring (0.7±0.1 nm). These protein densities presumably belonged to subunit a.
Cryo-electronmicroscopy (cryo-EM) was used to collect data of the p121 crystals and a merged projection density map was calculated to 7.0 Å resolution. The unit cell of the crystals (81 × 252 Å) contained two asymmetric units with three c-rings in each and next to the c11-rings new prominent densities were visible. In each extra density up to 7 transmembrane helices were visible, belonging to the stator subunit a and/or subunit b. To elucidate whether there are conserved elements in the three extra densities non-crystallographic averaging was applied using a single-particle approach.
Six possible arrangements for the c-rings and the extra densities were identified and used for the averaging. The extra densities were enhanced only in one of the possible arrangements. The average showed a four-helix bundle and a fifth helix in close proximity to the c-ring. Two more helices were present in each position but their position was ambivalent. The data obtained in this work provides the first insight in the helical arrangement in the a-c interface of F1Fo-ATP synthase.
Molecules of the title compound (alternative name: butane-1,4-diyl dinicotinate), C16H16N2O4, lie on a inversion centre, located at the mid-point of the central C—C bond of the aliphatic chain, giving one half-molecule per asymmetric unit. The butane chain adopts an all-trans conformation. The dihedral angle between the mean plane of the butane-3-carboxylate group [for the non-H atoms, maximum deviation = 0.0871 (15) Å] and the pyridine ring is 10.83 (7)°. In the crystal, molecules lie in planes parallel to (122). The structure features weak π–π interactions with a centroid–centroid distance of 3.9281 (11) Å.
Structural characterization of a polymethylsilsesquioxane (PMSQ) and a DT-type methyl silicone resin (MeDT) has been carried out by various instrumental analyses including GPC, NMR, gas chromatography, and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Although the PMSQ had a Mw around 5000, the resin contained a significant amount of low molecular weight species consisting of T2 [MeSi(OH)O2/2] and T3 [MeSiO3/2] units, ranging from T34T23 to T38T22 including many isomers. One isomer of T36T22 was isolated of which structure was determined as a cage structure. The species are supposed to consist mainly of cyclotetra- and cyclopentasiloxanes, but presence of strained rings such as cyclotrisiloxane rings also was suggested. In MeDT, species in which the T2 units in the molecules from PMSQ is replaced with D2 [Me2SiO2/2] were found, for example, T36D22, suggesting that general silicone resins consist of similar structures as silsesquioxanes. The Mark-Houwink exponent for these methyl resins was ~0.3, indicating the molecular shape to be compact. Investigation on the formation chemistry of the cubic octamers indicates that siloxane bond rearrangement is an important mechanism in the molecule build-up process.
Diese Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit den Strukturen supramolekularer Komplexe, die aus einem Wirkstoff und einem Modellrezeptor bestehen. Um die spezifische Bindung durch H-Brückenbildung nachzuahmen, wurden Co-Kristallkomponenten ausgesucht, die komplementäre Bindungsstellen besitzen. Die Strukturen der erhaltenen Komplexe sowie einiger (pseudo)polymorpher Formen wurden mit Hilfe der Einkristallstrukturanalyse bestimmt. Ein Vergleich mit Kristallstrukturen ähnlicher Verbindungen ergab Hinweise auf die bevorzugten Konformationen sowie die am häufigsten gebildeten H-Brückenmotive. Theoretische Berechnungen mit den Programmen MOMO und GAUSSIAN wurden bei der Einstufung der Stabilität der Konformere und Tautomere sowie bei der Abschätzung der Komplexbildungsenergien eingesetzt.
Zunächst wurden Co-Kristalle synthetisiert, deren Komponenten ausschließlich fixierte H-Brücken-bindungsstellen besitzen. Die Co-Kristallisationsversuche des Antimalariamittels Pyrimethamin mit Orotsäure führten zur Bildung einer neuen polymorphen Form, zwei Solvaten sowie dem gewünschten Co-Kristall.
In dem ADA/DAD-Komplex zwischen dem Antibiotikum Nitrofurantoin und 2,6-Diacetamidopyridin werden die Co-Kristallkomponenten durch drei H-Brücken verbunden. In den Kristallstrukturen wird die energetisch ungünstigere sp-Konformation von Nitrofurantoin bevorzugt. In dieser Konfomation besitzt das Molekül eine positive und eine negative Seite; dies ermöglicht eine dichtere Kristallpackung.
Aufgrund der Elektronegativitäten der O- und S-Atome sollte das Watson-Crick-Basenpaar zwischen den Nucleosiden 2-Thiouridin und Adenin, das durch eine N-H•••O-Brücke verbunden ist, stabiler sein als das entsprechende Wobble-Basenpaar mit einer N-H•••S-Brücke. Um die Stabilitäten der beiden H-Brücken zu untersuchen, wurden Co-Kristallisationsversuche mit dem Thyreostatikum 6-Propyl-2-thiouracil durchgeführt. Im Co-Kristall mit 2-Aminopyrimidin wird das R_2^2(8)-Heterodimer durch eine N-H•••N- und eine N-H•••S-Brücke verbunden, während N-H•••O-Brücken die 6-Propyl-2-thiouracilmoleküle zu Ketten verknüpfen. Aufgrund der ungünstigen intramolekularen Donor/Akzeptor-Abstände wird im Co-Kristall mit 2,6-Diacetamidopyridin der gewünschte ADA/DAD-Komplex nicht beobachtet. Stattdessen bildet 6-Propyl-2-thiouracil mit Hilfe zweier N-H•••S-Brücken R_2^2(8)-Homodimere, mit denen 2,6-Diacetamidopyridin nur durch eine N-H•••O-Brücke verbunden ist. Die Mitwirkung der N-H•••S-Brücke bei der „Basenpaarung“ kann dadurch erklärt werden, dass bei der Beteiligung der N-H•••O-Brücken an dem R_2^2(8)-Motiv N-H•••S-Brücken für die Kettenbildung zuständig wären; dieses Strukturmotiv wird jedoch in Kristallstrukturen selten beobachtet. Insgesamt zeigen diese Untersuchungen, dass C-O- und C-S-Gruppen konkurrenzfähige H-Brückenakzeptoren sind.
Anschließend wurden mehrere Co-Kristalle des Antimykotikums 5-Fluorcytosin synthetisiert. Im Co-Kristall mit 2-Aminopyrimidin wird das gewünschte AD/DA-Heterodimer beobachtet. Ein ähnliches R_2^2(8)-Heterodimer könnte zwischen 5-Fluorcytosin und N-Acetylkreatinin gebildet werden, jedoch werden die Komponenten lediglich durch eine H-Brücke miteinander verknüpft. Energieberechnungen machen dies plausibel. Trotz der komplementären AAD/DDA-Bindungsstellen wird im Co-Kristall mit 6-Aminouracil das Heterodimer nur durch zwei H-Brücken verbunden. Die dadurch gewonnene Energie reicht offenbar aus, um den Energieunterschied zum AAD/DDA-Heterodimer zu kompensieren. Die Co-Kristalle des 5-Fluorcytosins mit 6-Aminoisocytosin sowie der Co-Kristall mit dem antiviralen Wirkstoff Aciclovir bestätigen die Stabilität des AAD/DDA-H-Brückenmusters, welches dem Watson-Crick-Basenpaar C-G ähnelt.
Es gelang auch, das Konformations- und das Tautomerengleichgewicht durch eine spezifische Bindung zu beeinflussen. In den Co-Kristallen von 5-Fluorcytosin mit den beiden konformationell flexiblen Molekülen Biuret und 6-Acetamidouracil wird nur diejenige Konformation gefunden, die zur Bildung des gewünschten AAD/DDA-Heterodimers führt. Dabei liegt Biuret in der energetisch günstigeren trans-Form, 6-Acetamidouracil jedoch in der ungünstigeren cis-Form vor. Die drei AAD/DDA-Komplexe von 6-Methylisocytosin zeigen, dass durch die Bildung komplementärer H-Brückeninteraktionen Tautomere getrennt kristallisiert werden können: in den Co-Kristallen mit 5-Fluorcytosin findet man ausschließlich die 3H-Form, während in dem Komplex mit 6-Aminoisocytosin lediglich die 1H-Form vorliegt.
In dieser Studie werden somit neue Einblicke in die Anwendung von Co-Kristallen als Modellsysteme für die Untersuchung von Wirkstoff/Rezeptor-Wechselwirkungen gewonnen. Um Wirkstoff/Rezeptor-Komplexe noch besser nachzuahmen, sollten zukünftig Co-Kristallisationsversuche mit größeren und flexibleren Modellrezeptoren vorgenommen werden. Weiterhin wäre die Berücksichtigung schwacher Wechselwirkungen bei der Synthese von Co-Kristallen von Interesse.
The four subunit (SU) aa3 cytochrome c oxidase (CcO) from Paracoccus denitrificans is one of the terminal enzymes of the respiratory chain. It uses electrons from cytochrome c to reduce molecular oxygen to water. Its binuclear active center, residing in SU I, contains hemeÊa3 and CuB, the latter being liganded by three histidine residues. Apart from its oxygen reductase activity, the protein possesses a peroxidase and a catalase activity.
To compare variants and the wild type (WT) protein in a more stringent way, a recombinant (rec.) WT CcO was constructed, carrying the gene for SUÊI on a low copy number plasmid. This rec. WT showed, as expected, no difference in oxygen reductase activity compared to the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC) WT CcO but surprisingly its catalase activity was increased by a factor of 20. The potential overproduction of SUÊI due to plasmid coding and the resulting deficiency in metal inserting chaperones might impair the correct insertion of hemeÊa3 and CuB because of a deficiency in metal inserting chaperones. This in turn might lead to differences in side chain orientation and to changes in the water network. However, slight changes might cause an increased accessibility of the active center for hydrogen peroxide, resulting in an increased catalase activity. The availability of chaperones and therefore the proposed structural reasons for the difference was improved by cloning the genes for the two metal inserting chaperones CtaG and Surf1c on the same plasmid together with SUÊI. This new rec. WT CcO showed in fact a reduced catalase activity. Another WT with a deletion in the chromosomal second, non expressing gene of SU I was analysed to prove plasmid coding as the reason for the difference of the ATCC WT and the rec. WT. This strain showed an increased kcat of the catalase activity as well, additionally pointing to a regulatory effect of the non expressed gene for SU I in the chromosome. To fathom the structural difference of the increased catalase activity, differential scanning calorimetry was used, but no significant difference in thermal stability between the ATCC WT CcO and the rec. WT CcO was detected. However, upon aging, the thermal stability of the rec. WT CcO declined faster than that of the ATCC WT CcO pointing to a decreased structural stability of the rec. WT CcO.
To characterize the catalase reaction, several known inhibitors were used to probe the contribution of the different metal cofactors in the catalase reaction. In addition variants in aromatic amino acids near the active center were constructed to conclude on a possible reaction mechanism of the catalase activity of CcO. These variants in combination with the wild type forms were analysed for radical signals by EPR-spectroscopy. A radical relevant for the catalase reaction of CcO was found in the F-intermediate of all variants and all wild type forms. This narrow 12 G radical signal was assigned to a porphyrine radical probably involved in the catalase reaction of CcO. Moreover, gas chromatography-mass spectrometry measurements were used to analyse isotopically labelled oxygen produced in the catalase reaction.
As a result of these experiments, a reaction cycle of the catalase activity of CcO is postulated and the structural difference between the ATCC and rec. WT CcO is outlined. The catalase activity appears to be a true catalase activity and not a "pseudocatalase" activity.
Dual- or multi-target ligands have gained increased attention in the past years due to several advantages, including more simple pharmacokinetic and phamarcodynamic properties compared to a combined application of several drugs. Furthermore multi-target ligands often possess improved efficacy. We present a new approach for the discovery of dual-target ligands using aligned pharmacophore models combined with a shape-based scoring. Starting with two sets of known active compounds for each target, a number of different pharmacophore models is generated and subjected to pairwise graph-based alignment using the Kabsch-Algorithm. Since a compound may be able to bind to different targets in different conformations, the algorithm aligns pairs of pharmacophore models sharing the same features which are not necessarily at the exactly same spatial distance. Using the aligned models, a pharmacophore search on a multi-conformation-database is performed to find compounds matching both models. The potentially “dual” ligands are scored by a shape-based comparison with the known active molecules using ShaEP.
Using this approach, we performed a prospective fragment-based virtual screening for dual 5-LO/sEH inhibitors. Both enzymes play an important role in the arachidonic acid cascade and are involved in inflammatory processes, pain, cardiovascular diseases and allergic reactions. Beside several new selective inhibitors we were able to find a compound inhibiting both enzymes in low micromolar concentrations. The results indicate that the idea of aligned pharmacophore models can be successfully employed for the discovery of dual-target ligands.
Escherichia coli nitrate reductase A (NarGHI) is a membrane-bound enzyme that couples quinol oxidation at a periplasmically oriented Q-site (Q(D)) to proton release into the periplasm during anaerobic respiration. To elucidate the molecular mechanism underlying such a coupling, endogenous menasemiquinone-8 intermediates stabilized at the Q(D) site (MSQ(D)) of NarGHI have been studied by high-resolution pulsed EPR methods in combination with (1)H2O/2H2O exchange experiments. One of the two non-exchangeable proton hyperfine couplings resolved in hyperfine sublevel correlation (HYSCORE) spectra of the radical displays characteristics typical from quinone methyl protons. However, its unusually small isotropic value reflects a singularly low spin density on the quinone carbon α carrying the methyl group, which is ascribed to a strong asymmetry of the MSQ(D) binding mode and consistent with single-sided hydrogen bonding to the quinone oxygen O1. Furthermore, a single exchangeable proton hyperfine coupling is resolved, both by comparing the HYSCORE spectra of the radical in 1H2O and 2H2O samples and by selective detection of the exchanged deuterons using Q-band 2H Mims electron nuclear double resonance (ENDOR) spectroscopy. Spectral analysis reveals its peculiar characteristics, i.e. a large anisotropic hyperfine coupling together with an almost zero isotropic contribution. It is assigned to a proton involved in a short ∼1.6 Å in-plane hydrogen bond between the quinone O1 oxygen and the Nδ of the His-66 residue, an axial ligand of the distal heme b(D). Structural and mechanistic implications of these results for the electron-coupled proton translocation mechanism at the Q(D) site are discussed, in light of the unusually high thermodynamic stability of MSQ(D).
Die 5-Lipoxygenase (5-LO) ist eines der Schlüsselenzyme der Leukotrienbiosynthese. Sie katalysiert zunächst die Umsetzung der freigesetzten Arachidonsäure(AA) zu 5-Hydroperoxyeicosatetraensäure (5-HpETE), in einem zweiten Reaktionsschritt wandelt sie diese in Leukotrien A4 (LTA4) um. Leukotriene sind potente Entzündungsmediatoren und spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei entzündlichen und allergischen Reaktionen. Außerdem wird die Beteiligung an verschiedenen Krebsarten kontrovers diskutiert.
Sie besteht aus 673AS, ist 78 kDa schwer und gliedert sich wie alle bisher bekannten Lipoxygenasen in eine N-terminale C2-ähnliche, regulatorische Domäne(AS 1–114) (C2ld), die für die Membran- und Calciumbindung sowie die Interaktion mit dem Coactosin-like Protein (CLP) verantwortlich ist, und in eine C-terminale, katalytische Domäne (AS 121–673), die das Nicht-Häm-gebundene Eisen im aktiven Zentrum trägt. Ein weiteres Strukturmerkmal sind zwei ATP-Bindungsregionen, eine befindet sich in der C2ld (AS 73–83), die andere auf der katalytischen Domäne (AS 193–209), das molare Verhältnis von 5-LO zu ATP konnte dabei auf 1:1 festgelegt werden [167].
Bereits 1982 wurde in einer Veröffentlichung von Parker et al. beschrieben, dass 5-LO aus Rattenzellen in Gegenwart von Calcium auf einer Gelfiltration dimerisieren kann [204], 2008 schließlich wurde von Aleem et al. publiziert, dass humane 12-LO aus Thrombozyten Dimere bilden kann [219]. Somit konnte es möglich sein, dass auch die humane 5-LO zur Dimerisierung fähig ist.
Zunächst wurde aufgereinigtes Enzym mit nativer Gelelektrophorese und anschließender Coomassiefärbung oder Western Blot untersucht, dabei konnten mehrere Banden pro Bahn detektiert werden. Um dieses Phänomen weiter zu untersuchen, wurde im Anschluss eine Gelfiltration etabliert; da die C2ld der 5-LO recht hydrophob ist, war es nötig, 0,5% T20 zum Elutionspuffer PBS/EDTA zuzusetzen, da das Enzym ansonsten unspezifisch mit dem Säulenmaterial interagiert und für seine Größe zu spät eluiert hätte. In Anwesenheit von T20 eluierte 5-LO in zwei getrennten Peaks, die exakt zu den vorher mit Referenzproteinen bestimmten Elutionsvolumina des Monomers und Dimers passten. Weiter wurde getestet, ob niedermolekulare Substanzen einen Einfluss auf das Dimerisierungsverhalten haben, allerdings konnte weder durch Ca2+noch durch ATP eine Verstärkung der Dimerisierung beobachtet werden. Dahingegen konnte, nach Vorinkubation mit GSH und Diamid, das alleinige Monomer auf der Gelfiltration nachgewiesen werden, nach Vorinkubation nur mit Diamid, lag das gesamte Protein ausschließlich als Dimer vor. Durch Gelelektrophorese mit oder ohne Zusatz von ß-Mercaptoethanol und LILBID-MS konnte die Ausbildung von intermolekularen Disulfidbrücken bestätigt werden. Ein Bindungsassay mit radioaktivem 35S-GSH konnte die kovalente Bindung des GSH an die 5-LO bestätigen. Quantifizierungsstudien mit Ellmans Reagens zeigten, dass mindestens eins der Oberflächencysteine mit GSH modifiziert wurde. Die von der Gelfiltration erhaltenen Fraktionen wurden auf enzymatische Aktivität getestet und in allen 5-LO-haltigen Fraktionen konnte Aktivität gefunden werden. Leider war es nicht möglich, eine Aussage darüber zu treffen, ob das Mono- oder das Dimer aktiver war. Es liegt offenbar in einem Fließgleichgewicht vor, da erneute Injektion des Monomerpeaks im bekannten Elutionsprofil aus zwei Peaks resultierte. Außerdem führt die Anwesenheit von 0,5% T20 während des Aktivitätstests zu einer Hemmung des Enzyms und weniger detektierbaren 5-LO-Produkten; es fiel vor allem auf, dass so gut wie keinerlei trans- und epitrans-LTB4, die nicht-enzymatischen Zerfallprodukte der 5-HpETE, nachzuweisen waren. Betrachtet man die Struktur der 5-LO, so findet man zehn Cysteine an der Oberfläche; die Cysteine 159, 300, 416 und 418 liegen dabei in einem Interface. Mutiert man diese Cysteine zu Serinen, so verschwindet der Dimer-induzierende Effekt des Diamids, wohingegen die Mutante weiterhin glutathionylierbar bleibt. Interessanterweise zeigt diese Mutante auch eine wesentlich weniger ausgeprägte Hemmung durch T20. Um eine Aussage treffen zu können, ob auch 5-LO aus humanen Zellen Dimere bilden kann, wurde 5-LO-haltiger S100 aus polymorphkernigen Leukozyten (PMNL) untersucht. Dabei konnte mit Western Blot und einem Aktivitätsnachweis gezeigt werden, dass die 5-LO in einem breiten Bereich von der Gelfiltration eluiert. Das deutet darauf hin, dass sie in PMNL ebenfalls dimerisiert vorliegen kann. In Gegenwart von Ca2+kam es zu einer Verschiebung der 5-LO zu höhermolekularen Gewichten, wobei dieses Phänomen nicht bei S100 aus transformierten E.coli auftrat, was auf einen gerichteten Komplex nach Calciuminduktion in PMNL hindeutet.
Außerdem wurde im Rahmen dieser Arbeit der Bindemodus von Sulindac an die 5-LO mittels Crosslinking untersucht. Dabei konnte gezeigt werden, dass konzentrationsabhängig der einfache Komplex aus 5-LO und CLP abnimmt, dafür aber ein hochmolekularer Komplex, der beide Enzyme enthält, entsteht. Weder das Prodrug Sulindac noch der weitere Metabolit Sulindacsulfon oder andere Inhibitoren, die ebenfalls an der C2ld angreifen sollen, zeigten diesen Effekt. Leider konnte nicht weiter geklärt werden, was diesen Effekt verursacht, allerdings liegt die Vermutung nahe, dass es zu einer Aggregation kommt. Weitere Untersuchungen könnten wichtige Hinweise auf das Design von neuen Arzneistoffen bringen, um selektivere und damit nebenwirkungsärmere Inhibitoren zu finden.
The loading of antigenic peptides onto major histocompatibility complex class I (MHC I) molecules is an essential step in the adaptive immune response against virally or malignantly transformed cells. The ER-resident peptide-loading complex (PLC) consists of the transporter associated with antigen processing (TAP1 and TAP2), assembled with the auxiliary factors tapasin and MHC I. Here, we demonstrated that the N-terminal extension of each TAP subunit represents an autonomous domain, named TMD0, which is correctly targeted to and inserted into the ER membrane. In the absence of coreTAP, each TMD0 recruits tapasin in a 1:1 stoichiometry. Although the TMD0s lack known ER retention/retrieval signals, they are localized to the ER membrane even in tapasin-deficient cells. We conclude that the TMD0s of TAP form autonomous interaction hubs linking antigen translocation into the ER with peptide loading onto MHC I, hence ensuring a major function in the integrity of the antigen-processing machinery.
Directed deposition of silicon nanowires using neopentasilane as precursor and gold as catalyst
(2012)
In this work the applicability of neopentasilane (Si(SiH3)4) as a precursor for the formation of silicon nanowires by using gold nanoparticles as a catalyst has been explored. The growth proceeds via the formation of liquid gold/silicon alloy droplets, which excrete the silicon nanowires upon continued decomposition of the precursor. This mechanism determines the diameter of the Si nanowires. Different sources for the gold nanoparticles have been tested: the spontaneous dewetting of gold films, thermally annealed gold films, deposition of preformed gold nanoparticles, and the use of “liquid bright gold”, a material historically used for the gilding of porcelain and glass. The latter does not only form gold nanoparticles when deposited as a thin film and thermally annealed, but can also be patterned by using UV irradiation, providing access to laterally structured layers of silicon nanowires.
We present a computational method for the reaction-based de novo design of drug-like molecules. The software DOGS (Design of Genuine Structures) features a ligand-based strategy for automated ‘in silico’ assembly of potentially novel bioactive compounds. The quality of the designed compounds is assessed by a graph kernel method measuring their similarity to known bioactive reference ligands in terms of structural and pharmacophoric features. We implemented a deterministic compound construction procedure that explicitly considers compound synthesizability, based on a compilation of 25'144 readily available synthetic building blocks and 58 established reaction principles. This enables the software to suggest a synthesis route for each designed compound. Two prospective case studies are presented together with details on the algorithm and its implementation. De novo designed ligand candidates for the human histamine H4 receptor and γ-secretase were synthesized as suggested by the software. The computational approach proved to be suitable for scaffold-hopping from known ligands to novel chemotypes, and for generating bioactive molecules with drug-like properties.
Ubiquitination relies on a subtle balance between selectivity and promiscuity achieved through specific interactions between ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2s) and ubiquitin ligases (E3s). Here, we report how a single aspartic to glutamic acid substitution acts as a dynamic switch to tip the selectivity balance of human E2s for interaction toward E3 RING-finger domains. By combining molecular dynamic simulations, experimental yeast-two-hybrid screen of E2-E3 (RING) interactions and mutagenesis, we reveal how the dynamics of an internal salt-bridge network at the rim of the E2-E3 interaction surface controls the balance between an “open”, binding competent, and a “closed”, binding incompetent state. The molecular dynamic simulations shed light on the fine mechanism of this molecular switch and allowed us to identify its components, namely an aspartate/glutamate pair, a lysine acting as the central switch and a remote aspartate. Perturbations of single residues in this network, both inside and outside the interaction surface, are sufficient to switch the global E2 interaction selectivity as demonstrated experimentally. Taken together, our results indicate a new mechanism to control E2-E3 interaction selectivity at an atomic level, highlighting how minimal changes in amino acid side-chain affecting the dynamics of intramolecular salt-bridges can be crucial for protein-protein interactions. These findings indicate that the widely accepted sequence-structure-function paradigm should be extended to sequence-structure-dynamics-function relationship and open new possibilities for control and fine-tuning of protein interaction selectivity.
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance ("NMR") is a powerful and versatile technique relying on nuclei that posses a spin. Since its discovery more than 6 decades ago, NMR and related techniques has become a tool with innumerable applications throughout the fields of Physics, Chemistry, Biology and Medicine. Numerous Nobel Prizes have been awarded for work in the field and a multi billion dollar industry has developed on its basis.
One of NMR's major shortcomings is its inherent lack of sensitivity. Because it relies on the Boltzmann populations of spin states with a minuscule Zeeman splitting, this is particularly true for room temperature experiments.
As a result, in an enormous technological effort to enlarge the Zeeman splitting NMR magnets have been moving to higher and higher magnetic fields. However, even for proton spins possessing the largest magnetic moment of all nuclei, the degree of polarization that can be achieved in the strongest spectroscopic magnets available today (~24 T) at room temperature is merely ~ 8*(10 exp (-5)). In other words, this low polarization theoretically allows a sensitivity enhancement of 104 towards full polarization.
Since Magnetic Resonance Imaging ("MRI") is based on the same principle, it shares this problem with NMR. Furthermore, for technical and physiological reasons full body MRI tomographs do not reach the magnetic field strengths of spectroscopic NMR magnets, making this even more of an issue for MRI.
In consequence, MRI is chiefly restricted to detecting protons, while both MRI and NMR detection of 13C (or other low nuclei) under physiological conditions, i.e. low natural abundance of 13C and a low concentration of the respective substance, suffer from long acquisitions times that are necessary to obtain adequate signal to noise ratios ("SNR").
However, this drawb of NMR can be overcome. The enormous potential sensitivity increase of four orders of magnitude can - at least partially - be exploited by several hyperpolarization techniques, creating entirely new applications and fields of research.
These hyperpolarization techniques comprise chemical approaches like Parahydrogen Induced Polarization ("PHIP") or Photochemically Induced Dynamic Nuclear Polarization ("Photo-CIDNP"), as well as physical techniques like optically pumped (noble) gases13, 14 or Dynamic Nuclear Polarization ("DNP"), which will be the focus of this work. A hyperpolarized substance will render a larger signal without being physically or chemically altered in any other way. It is therefore "marked" without any marker, making it an agent free contrast agent for MRI.
DNP is a technique, in which hyperpolarization of nuclear spins is achieved by microwave (\MW") irradiation of unpaired electron spins in radicals, which are coupled to these nuclei, e.g. 1H, 13C or 15N. The electron spin population is perturbed if the microwave irradiation is resonant with the electron spin transition, which affects the polarization of hyperfine-coupled close nuclei. For large microwave power (i.e. saturating the electron spin transition) the orders of magnitude larger thermal electron spin polarization is effectively transferred to these nuclear spins in the sample. For proton spins the maximum polarization gain amounts to 660, whereas for 13C the sensitivity gain can be as large as 2600. In contrast to e.g. PHIP, which is restricted to specific reaction precursors, DNP is not limited to specific nuclei or hyperpolarization target molecules, making it a very versatile technique. DNP has been first proposed by Overhauser in 1953,15 and experimentally observed shortly thereafter in metals16 and liquids,17 both being systems with mobile electrons. In the 1960s and 70s, DNP was used as a spectroscopic tool in liquids, thoroughly mapping the effect in the low field regime. As well, several other transfer mechanisms were discovered, which are active in the solid state with localized electrons, namely the solid effect the cross effect and thermal mixing. The theory for all three of these mechanisms predicts reduced transfer efficiencies at higher magnetic fields. This fact and the lack of high frequency microwave sources to excite electron spins at magnetic field strengths above 1 T, effectively relegated DNP to a position of an interesting scientifi curiosity.
In the early 1990s, DNP came to a renaissance, when DNP was performed at high field in solid state magic angle spinning ("MAS") experiments using high power gyrotron microwave sources. This pioneering work sparked a surge of new developments and applications.
As well, this success triggered attempts to investigate also the potential of DNP in the liquid state at high magnetic fields, e.g. at 3.4 T35{38 and 9.2 T. To date, DNP can be considered one of the "hot topics" in the field of magnetic resonance, bringing about special issue in magnetic resonance journals and DNP sections on magnetic resonance conferences.
This thesis deals with the development of an in-bore liquid state DNP polarizer for MRI applications operating in ow through mode at a magnetic field strength of 1.5 T. Following this introductory chapter, the theoretical background necessary to understand and interpret the experimental results is explained in chapter 2. Subsequently, chapter 3 deals with the issue of performing liquid state DNP at high magnetic fields and its challenges. The chapter comprises a quick overview of the necessary hardware, the experimental findings for various samples and the interpretation of these findings. along with the ramifications for the aim of this work. Chapter 4 deals with the issue of increasing sensitivity and contrast in MRI, in particular by means of DNP. The chapter illustrates the development of our polarizer by presenting the hardware that was developed and demonstrating its performance under various conditions. As well, several alternative approaches are introduced and compared to our approach. Finally, chapter 5 summarizes the findings and gives an outlook on further developments.
Molecular dynamics has been employed to study the effect of ion treatment on the stability of 14-nucleotide RNA hairpin of Coxsackievirus B3. Three AMBER force fields were used: AMBER94, AMBER98, and AMBER99, which showed no significant structural difference of the hairpin. Thereafter, we applied two different long-range electrostatic treatments that were reaction field and PME methods, and calculated the distribution of ions around the hairpin. Although the structural stabilities of the MD simulations using both methods were similar in 0.14 M Na+, ion environment around the hairpin was notably different. In particular, structural stabilition of the hairpin with increasing ion concentration and with ion Mg2+ cannot be accommodated by simulations using reaction field method. Furthermore, the MD simulations using PME method suggested the strong similarity in structural and dynamical properties of the hairpin with 0.14 M Na+, 0.50 M Na+, 1,03 M Na+, and 0.08 M Mg2+ concentrations. However, the simulations revealed different ion occupations of Na+ and Mg2+.
The bis(trimethyl)silylamido complex Na(THF){Fe[N(SiMe3)2]3} and the disilane tBu3SiSitBu3 were obtained from the reaction of Fe[N(SiMe3)2]3 with the sodium silanide Na(THF)2[SitBu3] in a mixture of benzene and THF. Single crystals of Na(THF){Fe[N(SiMe3)2]3} suitable for X-ray diffraction were grown from the reaction solution at ambient temperature (orthorhombic, C2221, Z = 4). The solid-state structure features a contact-ion pair with two short N-Na contacts. The THF adducts {M(THF)2[N(SiMe3)2]2} reacted with 2,2´-bipyridine to give the corresponding complexes {M(2,2´bipy)[N(SiMe3)2]2} (M= Mn; Fe). Their structures (M= Fe: orthorhombic, Pca21, Z = 8; M = Mn: orthorhombic, Pbca, Z = 8) feature monomeric units. The cyclic voltammogram of Fe[N(SiMe3)2]3 revealed a reversible redox transition with the potential of -0;523 V (E½), which was assigned to the Fe(III)[N(SiMe3)2]3 → Fe(II)[N(SiMe3)2]-3 redox transition, whereas the compounds {Fe(THF)2[N(SiMe3)2]2} (Eox = -0;379 V) and {Fe(2,2´bipy)[N(SiMe3)2]2} (Eox = -0;436 V) featured irreversible oxidation waves. The related manganese bis(trimethylsilyl)amido complexes {Mn(THF)2[N(SiMe3)2]2} (Eox = -0;458 V) and {Mn(2,2´bipy)[N(SiMe3)2]2} (Eox = -0513 V) also underwent irreversibile electron transfer processes.
Es wurde die Photodynamik freier kolloidaler CdSe Quantenpunkte sowie die Elektronentransfer(ET)-Dynamik im System bestehend aus CdSe Quantenpunkten und adsorbiertem Methylviologen mit Hilfe der Femtosekunden-Laserspektroskopie im sichtbaren Spektralbereich untersucht. Die freien CdSe Quantenpunkte wiesen eine multiphasische Rekombinationsdynamik der photoinduzierten Exzitonen auf, was durch das Vorhandensein von Quantenpunkten mit unterschiedlichem Passivierungsgrad innerhalb einer Quantenpunktprobe erklärt wurde. Sowohl die Rekombinationsdynamik des Exzitons als auch die Intraband-Relaxation von Elektron und Loch besaßen eine Abhängigkeit von der Partikelgröße. Die 1P-1S-Relaxationzeit des Elektrons betrug in Partikeln mit Durchmessern von 3 nm und 6,3 nm 0,12 ps bzw. 0,24 ps, woraus sich Energieverlustraten von 1,0 eV/ps und 3,8 eV/ps berechnen ließen. Die sehr schnelle Natur der 1P-1S-Relaxation und die gefundene Größenabhängigkeit stehen im Einklang mit dem vermuteten Auger-artigen Energietransfer vom hochangeregten Elektron auf das Loch. Durch diesen Prozess kann das theoretisch vorhergesagte „phonon bottleneck“ effizient umgangen werden. Zudem konnte eine größenabhängige Biexziton-Bindungsenergie zwischen 40 meV und 28 meV ermittelt werden. Die Untersuchung von Multiexzitonen in CdSe Quantenpunkten zeigte einen schnellen Zerfallskanal. Es handelt es sich um die Auger-Rekombination. Die Rekombination nach 1P-Anregung wurde in Form von sequenziellen Schritten N, N-1, N-2,..., 1 interpretiert. Für das System bestehend aus CdSe Quantenpunkten und adsorbiertem Methylviologen wurde war eine Zunahme der ET-Rate bei steigender Akzeptorkonzentration zu beobachten, die mit der Zunahme von Akzeptorzuständen erklärt werden kann. Ferner wurde eine maximale ET-Rate erreicht, die bei einer weiteren Erhöhung der Akzeptorkonzentration nicht überschritten wird. In weiteren Versuchsreihen konnte gezeigt werden, dass die Größe der Partikel einen Einfluss auf den ET-Prozess zwischen Quantenpunkt und Methylviologen hat. Eine kombinierte Studie, in der sowohl das Quantenpunkt/Methylviologen-Verhältnis als auch die Quantenpunktgröße variiert wurde, verdeutlichte, dass eine Verkleinerung der Partikel zu einem Anstieg der ET-Rate führt. Die Variation der Partikelgröße geht mit einer Veränderung der Triebkraft der ET-Reaktion im gekoppelten System einher. Der gefundene Zusammenhang zwischen der Triebkraft der Reaktion und der ET-Rate ist gut mit der Marcus-Theorie vereinbar. In einer Serie von Experimenten am Quantenpunkt/Methylviologen ET-System wurde die Anregpulsenergie variiert, um den Einfluss von Multiexzitonen auf den Elektronentransfer zu untersuchen. Es zeigte sich, dass nach Mehrfachanregung der Quantenpunkte die Separation von bis zu vier Elektron-Loch-Paaren möglich ist. Für den Elektronentransfer im untersuchten ET-System wurde eine ET-Zeit von ca. 200 fs ermittelt. Diese ist deutlich kürzer als die gefundenen Auger-Rekombinationszeiten, die sich zwischen 1,5 ps und 5 ps bewegen. In einer Studie an CdSe/CdS Kern/Schale Partikeln wurde der Einfluss einer passivierenden anorganischen Schale auf den ET-Prozess untersucht. Bei der gewählten Heterostruktur handelte es sich um Typ I Kern/Schale Partikel, in denen sowohl Elektron und Loch hauptsächlich im Kern eingeschlossen sind. Es wurde ein exponentieller Abfall der ET-Rate mit wachsender Schalendicke beobachtet, weshalb davon auszugehen ist, dass die CdS-Schale als elektronische Barriere wirkt, durch die das photoangeregte Elektron tunneln muss, um mit dem Akzeptor reagieren zu können. Schließlich wurde der Einfluss des Elektronentransfers im ET-System auf die Entstehung von Phononen untersucht. Sowohl in freien Quantenpunkten als auch im gekoppelten System konnte das LO sowie das LA Phonon beobachtet werden, wobei das LA Phonon im gekoppelten System stark unterdrückt ist. Im Falle der freien Quantenpunkte sind die beobachteten Oszillationen eine Folge der Frequenzmodulation der Absorption des angeregten Zustandes. Mit Hilfe des Huang-Rhys-Parameters ließ sich ermitteln, wie stark in freien Quantenpunkten das LO Phonon an das Exziton gekoppelt ist. Der berechnete Huang-Rhys-Parameter betrug 0,012. Im Falle des gekoppelten Systems weist die spektrale Signatur der kohärenten Oszillationen darauf hin, dass diese durch die Frequenzmodulation der linearen QP-Absorption verursacht werden. Im Falle des gekoppelten Systems sind die beobachteten Phononen nicht an das Exziton sondern an die ET-Reaktion gekoppelt, d. h. der ET selbst induziert Gitterschwingungen im Reaktionsprodukt. Der berechnete Huang-Rhys-Parameter, der die ET-Phonon-Kopplung beschreibt, berechnete sich ebenfalls zu 0,012, was verdeutlicht, dass die ET-Phonon-Kopplung ähnlich stark wie die Exziton-Phonon-Kopplung ist. Mit Hilfe der spektralen Abhängigkeit der Oszillationen in freien Quantenpunkten und im gekoppelten System ließ sich eine Biexziton-Bindungsenergie von 35 meV berechnen.
Loss of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4 was reported for various tumor entities and proposed as a prognostic marker in tumorigenesis. We previously characterized decreased Pdcd4 protein stability in response to mitogenic stimuli, which resulted from p70S6K1-dependent protein phosphorylation, β-TrCP1-mediated ubiquitination, and proteasomal destruction. Following high-throughput screening of natural product extract libraries using a luciferase-based reporter assay to monitor phosphorylation-dependent proteasomal degradation of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4, we succeeded in showing that a crude extract from Eriophyllum lanatum stabilized Pdcd4 from TPA-induced degradation. Erioflorin was identified as the active component and inhibited not only degradation of the Pdcd4-luciferase-based reporter but also of endogenous Pdcd4 at low micromolar concentrations. Mechanistically, erioflorin interfered with the interaction between the E3-ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP1 and Pdcd4 in cell culture and in in vitro binding assays, consequently decreasing ubiquitination and degradation of Pdcd4. Interestingly, while erioflorin stabilized additional β-TrCP-targets (such as IκBα and β-catenin), it did not prevent the degradation of targets of other E3-ubiquitin ligases such as p21 (a Skp2-target) and HIF-1α (a pVHL-target), implying selectivity for β-TrCP. Moreover, erioflorin inhibited the tumor-associated activity of known Pdcd4- and IκBα-regulated αtranscription factors, that is, AP-1 and NF-κB, altered cell cycle progression and suppressed proliferation of various cancer cell lines. Our studies succeeded in identifying erioflorin as a novel Pdcd4 stabilizer that inhibits the interaction of Pdcd4 with the E3-ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP1. Inhibition of E3-ligase/target-protein interactions may offer the possibility to target degradation of specific proteins only as compared to general proteasome inhibition.
The title compound, C37H67NO13·2C2H6OS·1.43H2O, is a macrolide antibiotic with better solubility and better dermal penetration abilities than erythromycin A itself. The asymmetric unit of this form contains one erythromycin A molecule, two dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) solvent molecules, a fully occupied water molecule and a partially occupied water molecule with an occupancy factor of 0.432 (11). The 14-membered ring of the erythronolide fragment has a conformation which differs considerably from that in erythromycin A dihydrate [Stephenson, Stowell, Toma, Pfeiffer & Byrn (1997[Stephenson, G. A., Stowell, J. G., Toma, P. H., Pfeiffer, R. R. & Byrn, S. R. (1997). J. Pharm. Sci. 86, 1239-1244.]). J. Pharm. Sci. 86, 1239–1244]. One of the two DMSO molecules is disordered over two orientations; the orientation depends on the presence or absence of the second, partially occupied, water molecule. In the crystal, erythromycin molecules are connected by O—H⋯O hydrogen bonds involving the hydroxy groups and the fully occupied water molecule to form layers parallel to (010). These layers are connected along the b-axis direction only by a possible hydrogen-bonding contact involving the partially occupied water molecule.
The social amoeba Dictyostelium discoideum is a widely used model organism for studying basic functions of protozoan and metazoan cells, such as osmoregulation and cell motility. There is evidence from other species that cellular water channels, aquaporins (AQP), are central to both processes. Yet, data on D. discoideum AQPs is almost absent. Despite cloning of two putative D. discoideum AQPs, WacA, and AqpA, water permeability has not been shown. Further, WacA and AqpA are expressed at the late multicellular stage and in spores but not in amoebae. We cloned a novel AQP, AqpB, from amoeboidal D. discoideum cells. Wild-type AqpB was impermeable to water, glycerol, and urea when expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Neither stepwise truncation of the N terminus nor selected point mutations activated the water channel. However, mutational truncation by 12 amino acids of an extraordinary long intracellular loop induced water permeability of AqpB, hinting at a novel gating mechanism. This AqpB mutant was inhibited by mercuric chloride, confirming the presence of a cysteine residue in the selectivity filter as predicted by our structure model. We detected AqpB by Western blot analysis in a glycosylated and a non-glycosylated form throughout all developmental stages. When expressed in D. discoideum amoebae, AqpB-GFP fusion constructs localized to vacuolar structures, to the plasma membrane, and to lamellipodia-like membrane protrusions. We conclude that the localization pattern in conjunction with channel gating may be indicative of AqpB functions in osmoregulation as well as cell motility of D. discoideum.
Ubiquitination now ranks with phosphorylation as one of the best-studied post-translational modifications of proteins with broad regulatory roles across all of biology. Ubiquitination usually involves the addition of ubiquitin chains to target protein molecules, and these may be of eight different types, seven of which involve the linkage of one of the seven internal lysine (K) residues in one ubiquitin molecule to the carboxy-terminal diglycine of the next. In the eighth, the so-called linear ubiquitin chains, the linkage is between the amino-terminal amino group of methionine on a ubiquitin that is conjugated with a target protein and the carboxy-terminal carboxy group of the incoming ubiquitin. Physiological roles are well established for K48-linked chains, which are essential for signaling proteasomal degradation of proteins, and for K63-linked chains, which play a part in recruitment of DNA repair enzymes, cell signaling and endocytosis. We focus here on linear ubiquitin chains, how they are assembled, and how three different avenues of research have indicated physiological roles for linear ubiquitination in innate and adaptive immunity and suppression of inflammation.
Inhibitors of Apoptosis Proteins (IAPs) are well-studied E3 ubiquitin ligases predominantly known for regulation of apoptosis. We uncovered that IAPs can function as a direct E3 ubiquitin ligase of RhoGTPase Rac1. cIAP1 and XIAP directly conjugate polyubiquitin chains to Lysine 147 of activated Rac1 and target it for proteasomal degradation. Consistently, loss of these IAPs by various strategies led to stabilization of Rac1 and mesenchymal mode of migration in tumor cells. IAPs also regulate Rac1 degradation upon RhoGDI1 depletion and CNF1 toxin treatment. Our observations revealed an evolutionarily conserved role of IAPs in regulating Rac1 stability shedding light on to the mechanisms behind ubiquitination–dependent inactivation of Rac1 signaling.
The tumor suppressor programmed cell death 4 (Pdcd4) exerts its function by inhibiting protein translation initiation. Specifically, it displaces the scaffold protein eukaryotic initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) from its binding to the eukaryotic initiation factor 4A (eIF4A). Thereby, Pdcd4 inhibits the helicase activity of eIF4A, which is necessary for the unwinding of highly structured 5’ untranslated regions (UTRs) of messenger RNAs (mRNAs) often found in oncogenes like c-myc to make them accessible for the translation machinery and subsequent protein production. Overexpression of Pdcd4 inhibits tumorigenesis in vitro and in vivo and inversely, Pdcd4 knockout mice show enhanced tumor formation. In line, Pdcd4 is lost in various tumor types and proposed as prognostic factor in colon carcinomas. Unlike most other tumor suppressors that are rendered nonfunctional by mutations (e.g., p53), Pdcd4 loss is not attributable to mutational inactivation. It is regulated via translational repression by microRNAs and increased degradation of the protein under tumor promoting, inflammatory conditions and mitogens. Specifically, proteasomal degradation of Pdcd4 is controlled by p70 S6 Kinase (p70S6K)-mediated phosphorylation in its degron sequence (serines 67, 71 and 76). Stimulation of the PI3K-AKT-mTOR pathway by growth factors, hormones and cytokines initiates p70S6K activity. Phosphorylated Pdcd4 is subsequently recognized by the E3 ubiquitin ligase beta-transducin repeats-containing protein (β-TrCP) and marked with a polyubiquitin tail to be detected by the 26S proteasome for degradation. β-TrCP represents the substrate specific recognition subunit of the ubiquitin ligase complex responsible for protein-protein interaction with Pdcd4 as substrate for ubiquitin transfer and subsequent proteasomal disassembly.
The first part of the present work aimed at identifying novel stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4 in a high throughput screen (HTS). As assay design, a fragment of Pdcd4 from amino acid 39 to 91, containing the phosphorylation sensitive degron sequence, was fused to a luciferase reporter gene construct. Stable expression of this Pdcd4(39-91)luciferase (Pdcd4(39-91)luc) fusion protein in HEK 293 cells served as read-out for the Pdcd4 protein amount to be detected in a high throughput compatible cell-based assay. Loss of Pdcd4(39-91)luc was induced by treatment with 12-O-
tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), a phorbolester, which activates the PI3K signaling cascade leading to degradation of Pdcd4. The cut-off for hit definition was set at >50% activity in rescuing the Pdcd4(39-91)luc signal from TPA-induced degradation. Activity was calculated relative to the difference of DMSO- and TPA-treated cells (ΔDMSO-TPA = RLUDMSO-RLUTPA). Initial screening of a protein kinase inhibitor library (PKI) revealed hit substances expected to show Pdcd4 stabilizing activity by inhibition of kinases involved in Pdcd4 downregulation, e.g., the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin, the PI3K inhibitors wortmannin and LY294002 and the PKC inhibitors GF 109203X and Ro 31-8220.
The Molecular Targets Laboratory (MTL) of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) in Frederick, USA, hosts one of the largest collections of crude natural product extracts as well as a big substance libraries from pure synthetic sources. Screening of over 15 000 pure compounds and over 135 000 natural product extracts identified 46 pure and 42 extract hits as Pdcd4 stabilizers. For nine synthetic and six natural product derived compounds (after bioassay-guided fractionation), dose-dependent activities for recovering the TPA-induced Pdcd4(39-91)luc loss defined IC50s in the low micromolar range. Most importantly, these compounds were confirmed to stabilize endogenous Pdcd4 protein levels from forced degradation as well. This result proved the assay design to be highly representative for endogenous cellular mechanisms regulating Pdcd4 protein stability. The next step was to stratify the hit substances according to their likely mechanism of action to be located either up- or downstream of the p70S6K-mediated phosphorylation of Pdcd4. Therefore, phosphorylation of S6, as proto-typical p70S6K target, was analyzed and uncovered two natural derived compounds to influence p70S6K activity. Four substances did not affect p70S6K phosphorylation activity and were therefore considered to stabilize Pdcd4 by acting downstream, i.e. on the β-TrCP-mediated proteasomal degradation.
In the second part of this work, one of these compounds, namely the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin, isolated by bioassay-guided fraction from the active extract of Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae, was further characterized in detail with respect to its molecular mechanism of action. Erioflorin dose-dependently protected both Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 protein from TPA-induced degradation with IC50s of 1.28 and 2.64 μM, respectively. Pdcd4 stabilizing activity was maximal at 5 μM erioflorin. Up to this concentration, erioflorin was verified not to inhibit p70S6K activity. In addition, it was observed that erioflorin rescued Pdcd4(39-91)luc from both, wild type and constitutively active p70S6K-mediated downregulation. Only wild type p70S6K was inhibitable by the mTOR inhibitor rapamycin which served as an upstream acting control. To study the next section of Pdcd4 regulation, i.e. recognition by the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, Pdcd4(39-91)luc and endogenous Pdcd4 were immunoprecipitated from whole cell extracts with the corresponding antibodies. In this key experiment, treatment with TPA increased overexpressed β-TrCP binding to both and this coimmunoprecipitation could be strongly reduced by erioflorin treatment. This result strongly pointed to an inhibitory mechanism of the β-TrCP specific binding to Pdcd4 by erioflorin. In addition, erioflorin disrupted the binding of in vitro transcribed/translated β-TrCP to Pdcd4 in an in vitro interaction assay to exclude nonspecific intracellular signals. Furthermore, polyubiquitination of Pdcd4 was decreased by erioflorin treatment as well. To clarify questions regarding specificity of erioflorin for the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, stability of another important β-TrCP target was explored, i.e. the tumor suppressor inhibitor of kappa B alpha (IκBα). Indeed, the tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-mediated loss of IκBα could be prevented by erioflorin cotreatment. On the other hand, the E3 ubiquitin ligase von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL) was left unaffected as its target hypoxia inducible factor 1 alpha (HIF-1α) could not be stabilized from oxygen-dependent degradation by erioflorin treatment. These results argued strongly for erioflorin being a specific inhibitor of β-TrCP-mediated protein degradation. Functional consequences of erioflorin treatment were investigated by observing its influence on the transcriptional activities of the transformation marker activator protein 1 (AP-1, an indirect downstream target of Pdcd4) and nuclear factor κB (NF-κB which is directly inhibited by IκBα). Indeed, erioflorin showed significant inhibition of AP-1 and NF-κB reporter constructs at 5 μM, a concentration for which an impact on cell viability was excluded. Finally to characterize the significance of erioflorin in a cell-based tumorigenesis assay, the highly invasive colon carcinoma cell line RKO was tested in a two dimensional migration assay. Erioflorin was discovered to significantly lower cell migration in a wound closure assay.
In conclusion, development of a high throughput compatible cell-based reporter assay successfully identified novel substances from pure synthetic and natural product derived background as potent stabilizers of the tumor suppressor Pdcd4. In addition, this work aimed at elucidating the detailed mechanism of action of the sesquiterpene lactone erioflorin from Eriophyllum lanatum, Asteraceae. Erioflorin was discovered to inhibit the E3 ubiquitin ligase β-TrCP, thereby preventing protein degradation of tumor suppressors like Pdcd4 and IκBα. This may offer the possibility to more specifically target protein degradation and generate less adverse side effects by blocking a particular E3 ubiquitin ligase compared to general proteasome inhibition.
Chelidamic acid (4-hydroxypyridine-2,6-dicarboxylic acid) and 2,6-diaminopyridine react to form the title salt, C5H8N3+·C7H4NO5-; there are two formula units in the asymmetric unit. The pyridine N atom of 2,6-diaminopyridine is protonated whereas chelidamic acid is deprotonated at both carboxylate groups but protonated at the N atom; the reaction involves intra- and intermolecular proton transfer. In the crystal, each 2,6-diaminopyridinium cation participates in five strong N-H...O hydrogen bonds (including one bifurcated hydrogen bond). The crystal structure also features strong O-H...O hydrogen bonds between the chelidamate anions, leading to chains along the a axis.
C. elegans is used extensively as a model system in the neurosciences due to its well defined nervous system. However, the seeming simplicity of this nervous system in anatomical structure and neuronal connectivity, at least compared to higher animals, underlies a rich diversity of behaviors. The usefulness of the worm in genome-wide mutagenesis or RNAi screens, where thousands of strains are assessed for phenotype, emphasizes the need for computational methods for automated parameterization of generated behaviors. In addition, behaviors can be modulated upon external cues like temperature, O2 and CO2 concentrations, mechanosensory and chemosensory inputs. Different machine vision tools have been developed to aid researchers in their efforts to inventory and characterize defined behavioral “outputs”. Here we aim at providing an overview of different worm-tracking packages or video analysis tools designed to quantify different aspects of locomotion such as the occurrence of directional changes (turns, omega bends), curvature of the sinusoidal shape (amplitude, body bend angles) and velocity (speed, backward or forward movement).
Background: The ligand-activated transcription factor, peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ), has been shown to play an essential role in immunosuppression during sepsis. PPARγ is upregulated in T cells of septic patients, sensitizing these cells to PPARγ-dependent apoptosis and thus contributing to T-cell depletion. In the polymicrobial cecum ligation and puncture (CLP) sepsis model in mice, both T-cell-specific gene knockout (Lck-Cre PPARγfl/fl) and systemic pharmacological PPARγ antagonism by GW9662 improved survival. Because GW9662 was only effective when applied 3 hours after CLP, we were interested to extend this time frame. For this reason we characterized the kinetics of SPPARγMs when administered before or in combination with the agonist thiazolidinedione, rosiglitazone.
Methods: A PPARγ-dependent transactivation assay was used in HEK293T cells. It is based on the vector pFA-PPARγ-LBD-GAL4-DBD encoding the hybrid protein PPARγ-LBD-GAL4-DBD and the reporter vector pFR-Luc, carrying a GAL4-responsive element in front of the Firefly luciferase gene. These two vectors were co-transfected, in combination with a control vector encoding Renilla luciferase (pRL-CMV) to normalize Firefly luciferase activity for transfection efficiency. Following transfection, cells were incubated with the SPPARγMs F-MOC and MCC-555 and the PPARγ antagonist GW9662 for different times (2 to 48 hours) and at increasing doses (0.01 to 10 μM), with or without rosiglitazone (0.01 to 10 μM). Transactivation was analyzed using a 96-well plate format.
Results: Rosiglitazone transactivated PPARγ in a time-dependent and dose-dependent manner, the response gradually increasing to a maximum at 48 hours with 10 μM. Low concentrations (0.01 to 0.1 μM) of SPPARγMs F-MOC and MCC-555 and the PPARγ antagonist GW9662 all exerted dose-independent antagonistic effects at an early incubation time point (2 hours). From 10 hours onwards, MCC-555 and GW9662, given alone, both exerted PPARγ agonistic effects, MCC-555 in parallel to responses to rosiglitazone, but GW9662 with characteristics of partial antagonism. F-MOC showed no dose-dependent effect at any concentration at later time points. Only GW9662 (1 to 10 μM) was able to inhibit rosiglitazone (0.1 to 1 μM)-induced PPARγ transactivation after 10 hours.
Conclusion: Our kinetic analysis reveals clear differences in the modulatory characteristics of PPARγ inhibitors, with previously unreported early inhibitory effects and late agonistic or partial agonistic activity. New SPPARγMs with extended inhibitory activity may prove useful in the therapy of sepsis.
Ziel dieser Arbeit war es zum einen Informationen über den Mechanismus in Dodecinproteinen zu gewinnen, der zu der effizienten Fluoreszenzlöschung von gebundenem Riboflavin und einer deutlichen Verlängerung der Lebendsdauer des Chromophors unter Lichteinwirkung führt. Zum anderen sollte mit Hilfe eines kurzen Modellpeptids, das eine Azobenzoleinheit als Photoschalter in seinem Peptidrückgrat enthielt, erste Schritte der Peptidfaltung untersucht werden.
Die Untersuchungen an Dodecinproteinen konzentrierten sich hauptsächlich auf archaeales Dodecin aus Halobacterium salinarum (HsDod). Eine Besonderheit der Dodecinproteine ist, dass sie im Gegensatz zu anderen Flavinbindeproteinen zwei Flavinmoleküle in jeder ihrer sechs identischen Bindetaschen einbauen können. Kurzzeitspektroskopische Untersuchungen im UV/vis-Spektralbereich zeigen, dass nach Photoanregung eines gebundenen Riboflavinmoleküls nach etwa 10 ps der Ausgangszustand wieder erreicht wird. Weiterhin zeigt das Fehlen der stimulierten Emission in den transienten Daten, dass bereits innerhalb der Zeitauflösung des Experiments, in weniger als 150 fs, der erste angeregte Zustand des Riboflavins entvölkert wird. Dies verhindert unerwünschte Reaktionen des Riboflavins und stellt eine Versorgung der Zelle mit diesem wichtigen Baustein für die Biosynthese von FMN und FAD sicher. Die Ergebnisse zeigen außerdem, dass zwei Spezies mit unterschiedlichen spektralen Signaturen und Lebensdauern an dem Löschungsmechanismus und der Wiedererlangung des Ausgangszustands beteiligt sind. Der Vergleich von HsDod-Proteinen in nicht-deuteriertem und deuteriertem Lösungsmittel sowie die spektrale Signatur der Spezies, die mit einer Zeitkonstante von etwa 800 fs zerfällt deuten an, dass ein Elektronen- sowie ein Protonentransfer Teil des Mechanismus sind. Mit Hilfe von HsDod-Proteinen, bei denen der Asparaginsäurerest unterhalb der Bindetasche, der für das Binden eines wasserkoordinierten Magnesiumions verantwortlich ist, gegen Serin (D41S) oder Glutaminsäure (D41E) ausgetauscht war, konnte gezeigt werden, dass das wasserkoordinierte Magnesiumion nicht relevant für den Löschungsmechanismus ist. Dennoch konnte eine Beteiligung von Wassermolekülen nicht ausgeschlossen werden. Die Beteiligung eines Elektronentransfers von einem Tryptophanrest in der Bindetasche auf das photoangeregte Flavin konnte durch Messungen an Dodecinproteinen mit Tryptophan-Derivaten mit unterschiedlichen Ionisationsenergien bestätigt werden.
Die Spezies, die mit einer Zeitkonstante von etwa 5 ps zerfällt, die ebenfalls zu einer Wiederbesetzung des Ausgangszustands führt, konnte nicht eindeutig identifiziert werden. Die spektrale Signatur des zerfallassoziierten Spektrums könnte neben einer neutralen Tryptophanspezies und einem kationischen Riboflavinradikal auch durch schwingungsangeregte Riboflavinmoleküle verursacht werden.
Eine Beteiligung der Ribitylkette am Mechanismus kann aufgrund der Ergebnisse von HsDod-gebundenem Lumiflavin ausgeschlossen werden. Weiterhin konnte anhand der Ergebnisse für HsDod-gebundenes FAD, das in seiner geschlossenen Konformation gebunden wird, wobei der Adeninrest die zweite Position in der Bindetasche besetzt, eine Beteiligung des zweiten Flavins in der Bindetasche am Löschungsmechanismus sowie ein Beitrag zu den Differenzspektren ausgeschlossen werden. Somit dient die Besetzung einer Bindetasche mit zwei Flavinmolekülen vermutlich lediglich der Maximierung der Flavinbeladung. Nicht eindeutig geklärt werden konnte die Frage, ob es sich um einen sequentiellen oder parallelen Mechanismus handelt.
Neben archaealem wurde auch bakterielles Dodecin mittels transienter UV/vis-Spektroskopie untersucht. Für Dodecin aus Halorhodospira halophila (HhDod) konnte ebenfalls eine sehr schnelle Wiedererlangung des Ausgangszustands nach Photoanregung des gebundenen Riboflavins beobachtet werden. Allerdings spiegeln einige Unterschiede in den transienten Daten die Unterschiede in den Bindetaschen von archaealem und bakteriellem Dodecin wider und geben Hinweise darauf, dass die Funktionen in der Zelle für die Dodecine unterschiedlich sind. Diese Hypothese wird durch verschiedene Cofaktoren, Riboflavin und Lumichrom für HsDod und FMN für HhDod, in vivo unterstützt. Die ermittelten Zeitkonstanten sind für das bakterielle Dodecin etwas länger als für das archaeale und die transienten Daten weisen in den spektralen Signaturen der Differenzsignale sowohl Unterschiede als auch Gemeinsamkeiten auf.
Im zweiten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden erste Schritte der Peptidfaltung mit Hilfe eines wasserlöslichen bizyklischen Modellpeptids, das den Photoschalter 4(4’-Aminomethylphenylazo)benzoesäure (AMPB) enthält, untersucht. Hierfür wurden Kurzzeitspektroskopische Messungen im mittleren infraroten Spektralbereich für den Schaltvorgang von der cis-Form des Azopeptids in die trans-Form durchgeführt. Diese Methode erlaubt es, transiente Konformationsänderungen des Peptidrückgrats zu verfolgen. In der cis-Form kann das Peptid mehrere unterschiedliche Konformationen einnehmen, während der Konformationsraum für die trans-Form deutlich eingeschränkt ist. Nach der Photoanregung im Bereich der n-pi*-Bande der Azobenzoleinheit finden die grundlegenden konformationellen Änderungen innerhalb der ersten 10-20 ps statt. Dies wurde durch polarisationsabhängige Messungen bestätigt.
Auf dieser Zeitskala finden die größten Änderungen in den transienten Differenzspektren statt, die auf Konformationsänderungen sowie Kühlprozesse zurückzuführen sind. Diese Prozesse konnten mit einer Zeitkonstanten von 5 ps zusammengefasst werden. Auf längeren Zeitskalen finden weitere Reorganisationsprozesse statt, die mit einer Zeitkonstante von 300 ps zusammengefasst werden können. Bei maximaler Verzögerungszeit des Experiments (1,8 ns) ist der Gleichgewichtszustand noch nicht erreicht und es finden weitere Prozesse auf längeren Zeitskalen statt. Im Vergleich zu einem ähnlichen bereits untersuchten DMSOlöslichen bizyklischen AMPB-Peptid konnte keine schnellere Dynamik durch den Einsatz von Wasser als Lösemittel festgestellt werden, wie es vorangegangene transiente Experimente im UV/vis-Spektralbereich an wasser- und DMSO-löslichen bizyklischen Azopeptiden angedeutet hatten. Die Ergebnisse der transienten Messungen zeigen gute Übereinstimmungen mit molekulardynamischen Rechnungen. Das so gewonnene Modell von den Prozessen nach der Isomerisierung des Photoschalters erlaubt Einblicke in erste Schritte bei der Faltung von Peptiden in ihrem natürlichen Lösungsmittel Wasser und die Zeitskalen der entsprechenden Prozesse.
A simple and fast method of lipid analysis of isolated intact mitochondria by means of MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry is described. Mitochondria isolated from bovine heart and yeast have been employed to set up and validate the new method of lipid analysis. The mitochondrial suspension is directly applied over the target and, after drying, covered by a thin layer of the 9-aminoacridine matrix solution. The lipid profiles acquired with this procedure contain all peaks previously obtained by analyzing the lipid extracts of isolated mitochondria by TLC and/or mass spectrometry. The novel procedure allows the quick, simple, precise, and accurate analysis of membrane lipids, utilizing only a tiny amount of isolated organelle; it has also been tested with intact membranes of the bacterium Paracoccus denitrificans for its evolutionary link to present-day mitochondria. The method is of general validity for the lipid analysis of other cell fractions and isolated organelles.
Background: In macrophages Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) is activated in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and induces proinflammatory cytokine expression. Therefore, mechanisms terminating proinflammatory gene expression are important. Autophagy plays a central role in controlling innate immune responses by lysosomal degradation of signaling proteins, thus contributing to the resolution of inflammation. Autophagic proteins like p62 directly interact with molecules involved in the TLR4-signaling pathway, but a correlation with the IRAK E3 ligase and scaffold protein Pellino3 remains obscure. Hence, we are interested in elucidating the function of Pellino3 to prove our hypothesis that it is a key regulator in the TLR4-signaling cascade.
Methods: We used the cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) mouse model causing polymicrobial sepsis to analyze Pellino3 protein and mRNA expression. Furthermore, we induced endotoxemia in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages by LPS treatment to verify in vivo experiments. Lentiviral Pellino3 knockdown in RAW264.7 macrophages was used for cytokine measurements at mRNA level. To analyze potential Pellino3 binding partners in TLR4-signaling by mass spectrometry (MS), we overexpressed FLAG-tagged Pellino3 in RAW264.7 macrophages, treated cells for 3, 6 and 24 hours with LPS and immunoprecipitated Pellino3 via its FLAG-tag. To consider Pellino3 degradation as a result of p62-mediated autophagy, we transiently knocked down p62 by siRNA in RAW264.7 macrophages and also pharmacologically blocked LPS-induced autophagy by Bafilomycin A1.
Results: We demonstrated Pellino3 protein degradation in primary CD11b+ splenocytes after 24 hours following CLP operation and confirmed this in RAW264.7 macrophages after 24-hour LPS stimulation. Knockdown of Pellino3 attenuates proinflammatory cytokines, for example IL-6 mRNA, after 6 hours of LPS. Furthermore, we found by MS and verifying immunoprecipitation experiments that p62 is a Pellino3 binding partner, thus targeting Pellino3 for degradation. In line, both p62 knockdown and Bafilomycin A1 treatment prevent Pellino3 degradation, supporting an autophagic mechanism.
Conclusion: Our observations highlight a regulatory role of Pellino3 on TLR4 signaling. Thus, antagonism of Pellino3 in the hyperinflammatory phase of sepsis may counteract the cytokine storm. Furthermore, stabilization of Pellino3 by inhibition of autophagy in the hypoinflammatory phase of sepsis may improve immunity. In consideration of these two conflictive sepsis phases, modulation of Pellino3 may provide a new strategy for the development of a therapy approach in sepsis.
Measles virus glycoprotein-based lentiviral targeting vectors that avoid neutralizing antibodies
(2012)
Lentiviral vectors (LVs) are potent gene transfer vehicles frequently applied in research and recently also in clinical trials. Retargeting LV entry to cell types of interest is a key issue to improve gene transfer safety and efficacy. Recently, we have developed a targeting method for LVs by incorporating engineered measles virus (MV) glycoproteins, the hemagglutinin (H), responsible for receptor recognition, and the fusion protein into their envelope. The H protein displays a single-chain antibody (scFv) specific for the target receptor and is ablated for recognition of the MV receptors CD46 and SLAM by point mutations in its ectodomain. A potential hindrance to systemic administration in humans is pre-existing MV-specific immunity due to vaccination or natural infection. We compared transduction of targeting vectors and non-targeting vectors pseudotyped with MV glycoproteins unmodified in their ectodomains (MV-LV) in presence of α-MV antibody-positive human plasma. At plasma dilution 1:160 MV-LV was almost completely neutralized, whereas targeting vectors showed relative transduction efficiencies from 60% to 90%. Furthermore, at plasma dilution 1:80 an at least 4-times higher multiplicity of infection (MOI) of MV-LV had to be applied to obtain similar transduction efficiencies as with targeting vectors. Also when the vectors were normalized to their p24 values, targeting vectors showed partial protection against α-MV antibodies in human plasma. Furthermore, the monoclonal neutralizing antibody K71 with a putative epitope close to the receptor binding sites of H, did not neutralize the targeting vectors, but did neutralize MV-LV. The observed escape from neutralization may be due to the point mutations in the H ectodomain that might have destroyed antibody binding sites. Furthermore, scFv mediated cell entry via the target receptor may proceed in presence of α-MV antibodies interfering with entry via the natural MV receptors. These results are promising for in vivo applications of targeting vectors in humans.