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The process of urbanization is one of the major causes of the global loss of biodiversity; however, cities nowadays also have the potential to serve as new habitats for wildlife. The European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus, L. 1758) is a typical example of a wildlife species that reaches stable population densities in cities. Due to intense plant and soil damages, German city authorities aim to control high rabbit densities through the application of a yearly hunting regime (e. g., in Munich, Berlin or Frankfurt am Main). In contrast, population densities of O. cuniculus are on decline in German rural areas, i. e., numbers of yearly hunting bags decreased. The aim of my doctoral thesis was to answer the following research questions: Do population densities of the European rabbit correlate with the intensity of urbanization in and around Frankfurt am Main and if so, which factors play a role in varying densities? How are burrow construction behaviors and group sizes, daytime activity patterns and anti-predator behaviors as well as communication behaviors of this mammal affected by urbanization?
In my first study, I focused on population dynamics across 17 different study sites in and around Frankfurt. As one of yet few studies, I invented an approach that quantified the intensity of urbanization (degree of urbanity) of each study site base on four variables: (1) intensity of anthropogenic disturbance per min and ha, (2) number of residents within a radius of 500 m, (3) proportion of artificial ground cover and (4) numbers of anthropogenic objects per ha. Spearman rank correlations confirmed that with increasing degree of urbanity also rabbit and burrow densities increased. The access to dense shrubs, bushes etc. as suitable sites for burrow construction is the most determining factor for rabbit abundances, and therefore I presumed different densities along the rural-to-urban gradient to be driven by shifts in the availability of thick vegetation.
In the second study, I calculated two indices that in both cases classified burrows to be either accumulated, evenly or randomly distributed within study sites. Additionally, in cooperation with local hunters the number of burrow entrances and animals that occupy the same burrow had been determined during the hunting season. With increasing degree of urbanity burrow distribution patterns shifted from accumulated in rural areas towards more evenly distributed within the city center of Frankfurt. This is a clear sign for an increasing access to sites suitable for burrow construction along the rural to-urban gradient. Additional Spearman rank correlations revealed that the external dimensions of burrows decreased (shorter distances between entrances) and that burrows became less complex (fewer entrances) along the rural-to-urban gradient. In accordance, the number of rabbits that commonly shared the same burrow system was highest within rural areas, whereas I found mainly pairs and single individuals within highly urbanized study sites.
In the last study I compared activity patterns, burrow use and percentages of anti-predator behaviors from one hour before sunrise until one hour after sunset of rural, suburban and urban rabbit groups. A linear mixed model (LMM) and Spearman rank correlations confirmed that rabbits located at urban and suburban sites spent more time outside their protective burrows compared to their rural conspecifics. At suburban sites, individuals invested the least amount of time in anti-predator behavior. Results of this third study gave evidence that suburban rabbit populations on one hand benefit from less predation pressure by natural predators in comparison to rural sites, whereas on the other hand are exposed to less intense disturbance by humans compared to urban study sites.
The last study focused on the effects that urbanization had on the latrine-based communication behavior of rabbits. As many other mammals, O. cuniculus exchange information via the deposition of excreta in latrines, and depending on the intended receiver(s), latrines are either formed in central areas for within-group communication or at territorial boundaries, e. g., for between-group communication. The relative importance of within- vs. between-group communication depends on, amongst other factors, population densities and group sizes which I proved both to shift along the considered rural-to-urban gradient. I determined latrine sizes, latrine densities and latrine utilization frequencies relative to their distance to the nearest burrow at 15 different study sites. Latrine densities and utilization frequencies increased with increasing distance from the burrow in suburban and urban populations whereas at rural sites, largest latrines and those containing the most fecal pellets were close to the burrow, suggesting that within-group communication prevailed.
To sum up, for the first time, I was able to relate shifts in the ecology and behavior of the European rabbit as adaptations to a gradual anthropogenic habitat alteration that are typical for “urban exploiters”. Especially the suburban habitat provides high landscape heterogeneity (“edge habitat“) which is essential for high and stable rabbit populations. Moreover, here, comparably low human disturbance and predation pressure are given in contrast to the agriculturally transformed, open landscapes which are nowadays typical for most rural areas in central Europe. I argue that this mainly leads to the observed behavioral changes along the rural-to-urban gradient. Future plans for rural land management actions should aim to increase refuge availability by generating networks of ecotones. This would also benefit species that depend on similar ecosystem structures as the European rabbit and are on decline in Germany.
Multicellular organisms require that cells adhere to each other. This cell-cell adhesion is indispensable for the formation and the integrity of epithelial structures, tissues and organs. Mammals have developed four different cell-cell adhesion structures, the adhering junctions, which ensure the tight contact between cells but are also important platforms for communication and exchange in tissues. Two of these adhering junctions are cadherin based, the belt-like adherens junctions and the spot-like desmosomes. Both structures have in common that they are composed of single membrane spanning proteins, the cadherins, which accomplish adhesion in a calcium-dependent manner. The intracellular parts of classical as well as desmosomal cadherins bind to different adaptor proteins of the armadillo-protein family and others which build a protein plaque underneath the membrane and link the cadherins to the actin or intermediate filament cytoskeleton.
Desmosomes are of special importance for tissues that have to withstand mechanical stress. Although they are essential to stabilize tissues they have to be highly flexible and dynamic structures, as processes like wound healing or tissue remodeling require that adhesive interactions can be modulated. The molecular dynamics within desmosomes are not jet understood in detail, but it is assumed that two different membrane associated pools of desmosomal cadherins exist in cells. Cadherins that are incorporated in mature desmosomes are part of the junctional pool, whereas cadherins that are not associated with firm desmosomes and the intermediate filament cytoskeleton belong to the non-junctional pool. Lateral movements between the two pools results in a dynamic equilibrium and allows for example the exchange of old cadherins. Little is known about the breakdown of desmosomal cadherins. Several studies found that desmosome assembly or endocytosis are cholesterol dependent processes and claimed that membrane microdomains play a role in the regulation of desmosome dynamics. Moreover, membrane rafts may be involved in the pathomechanism of the desmosome associated disease pemphigus, were autoantibodies bind to the cadherin desmoglein-3 and trigger its internalization which results in a loss of adhesion in skin cells.
Membrane rafts are cholesterol dependent nanoscale structures of cellular membranes that are able to regulate the distribution of proteins within the plasma membrane and thus form platforms for cell signaling and membrane trafficking. Flotillins are proteins that are associated with membrane rafts and are reported to be involved in processes like endocytosis, endosomal sorting and a multitude of different signaling events. We could recently show that the membrane raft associated proteins flotillin-1 and flotillin-2 bind directly to the armadillo protein y-catenin which can be part of both, the adherens junction and the desmosome. The aim of this study was to eluciadate a possible role of flotillins in the regulation of desmosomes.
HaCaT keratinocytes were chosen as the main cell system for this study and at first the association of desmosomal components with flotillins was analyzed in detail. It was found that flotillins are clearly associated with desmosomal proteins. They colocalize with desmoglein-3 at cell borders and precipitate the other desmogleins. Further binding assays revealed that both flotillins bind to all desmogleins and the long isoforms of the second class of desmosomal cadherins, the desmocollins. The interaction is a direct one and was mapped to the ICS sequence within the cadherins. This close association rendered the question whether flotillins are functionally implicated in desmosome regulation. To address this issue, stable flotillin knockdown HaCaT cells were analyzed in detail. The molecular morphology of desmoglein-3, desmoglein-1 and two plaque proteins was clearly altered in the absence of flotillins. The membrane staining of all tested desmosomal proteins was derailed and disordered. Furthermoore, the loss of flotillins had an impact on the adhesive capacity of HaCaT keratinocytes. The cell-cell adhesion was weakened in the absence of flotillins, which was monitored by an increased fragmentation of knockdown cells in a cell dissociation assay.
In order to find out the mechanism by which flotillins influence the membrane morphology and the adhesiveness in keratinocytes, the association of desmosomal proteins with membrane microdomains was examined, at first. A predominant part of desmoglein-3 is associated with membrane rafts in HaCaT keratinocytes, whereas only a minor part of desmoglein-1 is found there. However, the raft-association of none of the examined proteins was altered in the absence of flotillins. Furthermore, flotillin depletion did not change the distribution of desmogleins with the two different cadherin pools. Less desmoglein-3 is found in the junctional pool of the flotillin depleted cells compared to the control cells, but this is due to an overall diminished desmoglein-3 protein level in these cells.
Flotillins are involved in endocytic processes but their exact role there is under debate. The endocytic uptake of desmosomal cadherins requires intact membrane rafts, but the precise mechanism is still unknown. A possible involvement of flotillins on the endocytosis of desmoglein-3 was addressed next. It is known that the internalization of desmoglein-2 is dependent on the GTPase dynamin, arguing for an involvement of dynamin in the endocytosis of desmoglein-3 as well. When dynamin and thus desmoglein-3 endocytosis was inhibited using chemical compounds, the mislocalization of desmoglein-3 that was observed in flotillin knockdown cells was restored. This suggest that inhibition of desmoglein-3 endocytosis enhances the amount and/or availability of desmoglein-3 at the plasma membrane, which then normalizes the morphological alterations caused by a knockdown of flotillins. Furthermore the morphological alterations in the flotillin knockdown HaCaT cells were found to be similar to the localization of desmoglein-3 that was observed upon treatment of keratinocytes with PV IgG These structures have been described before as linear arrays and are assumed to be sites of endocytic uptake. This strengthens the idea that enhanced desmoglein-3 internalization takes place in the absence of flotillins, which then results in a weakened adhesion.
Altogether this study revealed flotillins as novel players in desmosome mediated cell-cell adhesion processes. By binding to desmosomal cadherins and desmosomal plaque proteins, flotillins stabilize desmosomes at the plasma membrane and are required for a proper cell-cell adhesion.
Surface water can contain a complex mixture of organic micropollutants (i.e. residues of pharmaceuticals or biocides). Conventional wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) do not completely remove a broad range of anthropogenic chemicals and therefore represent a leading point source. To upgrade WWTPs, technical solutions based on oxidative and sorptive processes have been developed and successfully implemented. Acknowledging these substantial advances, this thesis focuses on another key topic and aims to investigate whether improved biological treatment processes likewise effectively remove anthropogenic micropollutants from wastewater. The work conducted on this topic was part of two European research projects (ATHENE, ENDETECH).
The ATHENE project aimed to go beyond the state-of-the-art by developing biological wastewater treatment processes that exploit the full potential of biodegradation. With the objective to explore the potential of complementary strictly anaerobic conditions within the biological wastewater treatment, combinations of aerobic and anaerobic treatments on site of a WWTP were implemented. Based on pre-experiments, two promising treatment combinations were selected for a more comprehensive evaluation. An aerobic treatment was paired with an anaerobic pre-treatment under iron-reducing conditions, and an activated sludge treatment was combined with an anaerobic post-treatment under substrate-limiting conditions. For the evaluation of these processes, an effect-based assessment was applied and combined with chemical data of 31 selected target organic micropollutants as well as ten metabolites. To assess the removal of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), yeast based reporter gene assays covering seven receptor-mediated mechanisms of action including (anti-)estrogenicity, (anti-) androgenicity, retinoid-like, and dioxin-like activity were conducted. Furthermore, the removal of unspecific toxicity (Microtox assay) and oxidative stress response as a marker for reactive toxicity (AREc32 assay) were analyzed to cover micropollutants acting via a non-specific mechanism of action. Moreover, to assess toxicity of the whole effluent in vivo, standardized in vivo bioassays with four aquatic model species (Desmodesmus subspicatus, Daphnia magna, Lumbriculus variegatus, Potamopyrgus antipodarum) were performed.
The combination of aerobic and anaerobic treatments resulted in a low additional removal of the selected target organic micropollutants (by 14-17%). In contrast, the removal of endocrine and dioxin-like activities (by 17-75%) and non-specific in vitro toxicities (by 27-60%) was significantly enhanced. Compared to technical solutions (i.e. ozonation), the combination with an anaerobic pre-treatment under iron-reducing conditions was likewise effective in removing the estrogenic activity as well as the unspecific toxicity, whereas anti-androgenic activity and dioxin-like activity were less effectively removed. Exposure to effluents of the conventional activated sludge treatment did not induce adverse in vivo effects in the investigated aquatic model species. Accordingly, no further improvement in water quality could be observed. In conclusion, the combination of aerobic and anaerobic treatment processes significantly enhanced the removal of specific and non-specific in vitro toxicities. Thus, an optimization of the biological wastewater treatment can lead to a substantially improved detoxification. These capacities of a treatment technology can only be uncovered by complementary effect-based measurements.
The global objective of the ENDETECH project was to develop a biotechnological solution to eliminate recalcitrant pharmaceuticals in wastewater direct from sites, where high loads are expected (i.e. hospitals). For this purpose, laccase, an enzyme mainly found in wood decaying fungi, was immobilized on ceramic membranes for application in bioreactors. In a proof of principle experiment, the performance of immobilized laccase in removing a mixture of 38 antibiotics without and in combination with a natural mediator (syringaldehyde; SYR) was investigated. For the evaluation of the enzymatic membrane bioreactors, chemical data on the elimination of the selected target antibiotics was combined with the outcomes of two in vitro bioassays. Growth inhibition tests with an antibiotic sensitive Bacillus subtilis strain were conducted to assess the residual antibiotic activity of the effluents, and Microtox assays were performed to detect a potential formation of toxic by-products.
The treatment by laccase without SYR did not reduce the load of antibiotics significantly. In contrast, in combination with a SYR concentration of 10 µmol L-1, 26 out of 38 antibiotics were removed by >50% after 24 h treatment. Moreover, increasing the SYR concentration to 1000 µmol L-1 resulted in a further improvement of the antibiotic removal. 32 out of 38 antibiotics were removed by over 50%, whereby 17 were almost completely eliminated (>90%). However, the treatment with laccase in combination with SYR resulted in a time-dependent increase of unspecific toxicity. While SYR alone did not affect B. subtilis, the combination of laccase with SYR led to a strong time-dependent growth inhibition up to 100%. Similar to that, a time-dependent increase of unspecific toxicity in the Microtox assay was observed. In conclusion, the laccase-mediator process successfully degrades a broad spectrum of antibiotics and thus represents a promising technology to treat wastewater from sites, where high loads are expected. However, further research is required to reduce the formation of unspecific toxicity before an implementation of this technology can be considered.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) has the third highest incidence and the fourth highest mortality rate worldwide and represents a substantial health care burden and affects the life of millions of people. CRC is a genetic disease caused by the stepwise accumulation of genetic alterations. The initiating event in colorectal carcinogenesis is the aberrant activation of the WNT pathway, but other pathways are also commonly deregulated, including the PI3K/AKT pathway. A number of previous studies using genetically engineered mouse models aimed at dissecting the exact role of PI3K/AKT pathway in CRC, but have yielded in rather conflicting results. Despite the inconsistent results, these studies already put forward the idea that PI3K/AKT signaling in combination with other genetic events might substantially contribute to tumor progression.
Since the PI3K/AKT pathway is frequently activated in CRC, it represents an ideal candidate for therapeutic intervention. Although extensive efforts had led to the development of numerous inhibitors targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway, the diversity of genetic alterations can challenge the identification of the most effective therapeutic targets. Therefore, the discovery of shared tumor-promoting mechanisms downstream of these genetic alterations might unravel new biomarkers and druggable targets. The aim of this study was to elucidate the precise role of PI3K/AKT pathway during the course of colorectal carcinogenesis and to decipher novel pro-tumorigenic molecular mechanisms downstream of PI3K/AKT activation that can be used for therapeutic intervention.
To obtain a better insight into the role of the PI3K/AKT pathway during colorectal carcinogenesis, mice expressing an oncogenic variant of AKT1 (AktE17K) specifically in the intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) were used. At the age of 6 months untreated AktE17K mice showed clearly perturbed intestinal homeostasis, but no tumor formation. To induce colonic tumorigenesis, AktE17K mice were subjected to treatment with the colonic carcinogen azoxymethane (AOM). In response to AOM, AktE17K mice developed invasive but nonmetastatic tumors, which showed strong nuclear accumulation of TP53. To investigate the role of PI3K/AKT signaling specifically in CRC progression, AktE17K mice were crossed to TP53- deficient mice (Tp53ΔIEC). Unlike AktE17K mice, untreated Tp53ΔIECAktE17K, developed highly invasive small intestinal tumors by the age of 6 months. To investigate the role of AKT hyperactivation in colonic tumor progression, Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice were subjected to AOM treatment. AKT hyperactivation significantly enhanced tumor progression and induced metastatic dissemination.
To get a better insight how AKT signaling can promote tumor progression, whole tumor tissues from AOM-treated Tp53ΔIEC and Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice were subjected to next generation mRNA sequencing and phospho-proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry. Both analyses indicated that AKT hyperactivation expands the inflammatory tumor microenvironment and upregulates pathways associated with invasion and metastasis. Importantly, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed that AOM-induced colon tumors of Tp53ΔIECAktE17K animals, are highly similar in their gene expression profile to the CMS4 subtype of human CRC, which is associated with worse overall- and relapse-free survival7 . Gene expression analysis also suggested elevated NOTCH signaling in the Tp53ΔIECAktE17K tumors. Interestingly, while the expression of Notch3 mRNA was increased in the tumors of Tp53ΔIECAktE17K mice, the expression of the other NOTCH receptors was unaffected by AKT hyperactivation. In vitro experiments using TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling confirmed the direct, tumor cell-intrinsic link between AKT activation and increased Notch3 expression. Moreover, inhibition of EZH2 mimicked the effect of AKT hyperactivation on Notch3 expression, suggesting that AKT regulates Notch3 via an epigenetic mechanism.
Knock-down of Notch3 in TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling resulted in differential regulation of several pathways with potential role in invasion and metastasis and in cell death and survival. Subsequent in vivo experiments confirmed the role of NOTCH3 signaling in CRC progression. Treatment of AOM-induced Tp53ΔIECAkt E17K mice with a NOTCH3 antagonistic antibody or the γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT significantly reduced invasion and metastasis. Importantly, NOTCH3 expression was also found to be associated with human CRC progression, suggesting that NOTCH3 represent a valid target for the treatment of CRC. This work, using genetically engineered mouse models and advanced in vitro techniques, has demonstrated a strong tumor promoting role for PI3K/AKT signaling in CRC progression and has identified NOTCH3 signaling as a potential therapeutic target downstream of the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Colorectal cancer (CRC) has the third highest incidence and the fourth highest mortality rate worldwide and represents a substantial health care burden and affects the life of millions of people. CRC is a genetic disease caused by the stepwise accumulation of genetic alterations. The initiating event in colorectal carcinogenesis is the aberrant activation of the WNT pathway, but other pathways are also commonly deregulated, including the PI3K/AKT pathway. A number of previous studies using genetically engineered mouse models aimed at dissecting the exact role of PI3K/AKT pathway in CRC, but have yielded in rather conflicting results. Despite the inconsistent results, these studies already put forward the idea that PI3K/AKT signaling in combination with other genetic events might substantially contribute to tumor progression. Since the PI3K/AKT pathway is frequently activated in CRC, it represents an ideal candidate for therapeutic intervention. Although extensive efforts had led to the development of numerous inhibitors targeting the PI3K/AKT pathway, the diversity of genetic alterations can challenge the identification of the most effective therapeutic targets. Therefore, the discovery of shared tumor-promoting mechanisms downstream of these genetic alterations might unravel new biomarkers and druggable targets. The aim of this study was to elucidate the precise role of PI3K/AKT pathway during the course of colorectal carcinogenesis and to decipher novel protumorigenic molecular mechanisms downstream of PI3K/AKT activation that can be used for therapeutic intervention.
To obtain a better insight into the role of the PI3K/AKT pathway during colorectal carcinogenesis, mice expressing an oncogenic variant of AKT1 (AktE17K) specifically in the intestinal epithelial cells (IEC) were used. At the age of 6 months untreated AktE17K mice showed clearly perturbed intestinal homeostasis, but no tumor formation. To induce colonic tumorigenesis, AktE17K mice were subjected to treatment with the colonic carcinogen azoxymethane (AOM). In response to AOM, AktE17K mice developed invasive but non-metastatic tumors, which showed strong nuclear accumulation of TP53. To investigate the role of PI3K/AKT signaling specifically in CRC progression, AktE17K mice were crossed to TP53-deficient mice (Tp53ΔIEC). Unlike AktE17K mice, untreated Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K, developed highly invasive small
intestinal tumors by the age of 6 months. To investigate the role of AKT hyperactivation in colonic tumor progression, Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K mice were subjected to AOM treatment. AKT hyperactivation significantly enhanced tumor progression and induced metastatic dissemination.
To get a better insight how AKT signaling can promote tumor progression, whole tumor tissues from AOM-treated Tp53ΔIEC and Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K mice were subjected to next generation mRNA sequencing and phospho-proteomic analysis by mass spectrometry. Both analyses indicated that AKT hyperactivation expands the inflammatory tumor microenvironment and upregulates pathways associated with invasion and metastasis. Importantly, Gene Set Enrichment Analysis revealed that AOM-induced colon tumors of Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K animals, are highly similar in their gene expression profile to the CMS4 subtype of human CRC, which is associated with worse overall- and relapse-free survival. Gene expression analysis also suggested elevated NOTCH signaling in the Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K tumors. Interestingly, while the expression of Notch3 mRNA was increased in the tumors of Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K mice, the expression of the other NOTCH receptors was unaffected by AKT hyperactivation. In vitro experiments using TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling confirmed the direct, tumor cell-intrinsic link between AKT activation and increased Notch3 expression. Moreover, inhibition of EZH2 mimicked the effect of AKT hyperactivation on Notch3 expression, suggesting that AKT regulates Notch3 via an epigenetic mechanism.
Knock-down of Notch3 in TP53-deficient mouse tumor organoids with hyperactive AKT signaling resulted in differential regulation of several pathways with potential role in invasion and metastasis and in cell death and survival. Subsequent in vivo experiments confirmed the role of NOTCH3 signaling in CRC progression. Treatment of AOM-induced Tp53ΔIEC; AktE17K mice with a NOTCH3 antagonistic antibody or the γ-secretase inhibitor DAPT significantly reduced invasion and metastasis. Importantly, NOTCH3 expression was also found to be associated with human CRC progression, suggesting that NOTCH3 represent a valid target for the treatment of CRC. This work, using genetically engineered mouse models and advanced in vitro techniques, has demonstrated a strong tumor promoting role for PI3K/AKT signaling in CRC progression and has identified NOTCH3 signaling as a potential therapeutic target downstream of the PI3K/AKT pathway.
Characterizing the hologenome of Lasallia pustulata and tracing genomic footprints of lichenization
(2017)
The lichen symbiosis – consisting of fungal mycobionts and photoautotroph photobionts (green algae or cyanobacteria) – is globally successful. It covers an estimated 6% of the global surface with habitats ranging from deserts to the arctic. This success is reflected in the diversity of the mycobionts, with around 21% of all fungal species participating in lichen symbioses that can be facultative or obligate. Lichenization is furthermore evolutionary old, with fossil evidence for lichens reaching back 415 million years. For an individual fungal lineage, the Lecanoromycetes, the lichenization happened around 300 million years ago. This longstanding symbiotic relationship and the diversity of observed symbiotic dependency make them promising models to study the genomic consequences that follow the establishment of symbioses. Despite this, only little is known about the genomic effects of lichenization and extreme symbiotic dependency. To fill this gap we sequenced the hologenome of the lichen Lasallia pustulata, where the mycobiont could so far not been cultivated, suggesting that it might be more dependent on its symbionts.
As the poor culturability of lichen symbionts renders their genomes inaccessible to standard sequencing practices, we evaluated the extent to which different metagenome sequencing- and de novo assembly-strategies can be used to sequence and reconstruct the genomes of the individual symbionts. We find that the abundances of individual genomes present in the L. pustulata hologenome vary substantially, with the mycobiont being most abundant. Using in silico generated data sets and real Illumina sequencing data for L. pustulata we observe that the skewed abundances prevent a contiguous assembly of the underrepresented genomes when using only short-read sequencing. We conclude that short-read sequencing can offer first insights into lichen hologenomes. The fragmentation of the reconstructions hinders downstream analyses into the genomic consequences of lichenization though, as these are focused on identifying the gain and loss of genes.
We thus demonstrate a hybrid genome assembly strategy that is based on both short- and long-read sequencing. We show that this strategy is capable of creating highly contiguous genome reconstructions, not only for the L. pustulata mycobiont but also its photobiont Trebouxia sp., along with substantial amounts of the bacterial microbiome. A subsequent analysis of the microbiome of L. pustulata – performed over nine different samples collected in Germany and Italy – showed a stable taxonomic composition across the geographic range. We find that Acidobacteriaceae, which are known to thrive in nutrient poor habitats, are the dominant taxa. These would make them well adapted for the co-habitation with L. pustulata, which largely grows on rocks. Whether the Acidobacteriaceae are functionally involved in the lichen symbiosis is unclear so far.
As further comparative genomic studies rely on comprehensive genome annotations, we evaluate the completeness and fidelity of the gene annotations for the mycobiont L. pustulata as well as four further Lecanoromycetes. This reveals that un- and mis-annotated genes impact all evaluated genomes, with artificially joined genes and unannotated genes having the largest impact. In addition to these factors we find that the sequence composition – especially G/C-rich inverted repeats – lead to sequencing errors that interfere with the gene prediction. We minimize the effects of these artifacts through a rigorous curation.
Given the extremely sparse taxon sampling of available green alga genomes, we focus our search for the genomic footprints of lichenization on the mycobionts. We compare the genomes of the Lecanoromycetes to their closest relatives, the Eurotiomycetes and Dothideomycetes. This reveals that the last common ancestor of the Lecanoromycetes has lost around 10% of its genes after they split from the non-lichenized ancestor they share with the Eurotiomycetes. These losses are furthermore enriched, showing an excessive loss of genes involved with the degradation of polysaccharides. The loss of these genes fits a change from an ancestral saprotrophic lifestyle that depends on degrading complex plant matter, to the symbiotic lifestyle that relies on simpler nutrients provided by the photobionts. While the last common ancestor of the Lecanoromycetes additionally gained around 400 genes these could so far not be further characterized due to a lack of functionally annotated reference data.
As the mycobiont L. pustulata could so far not been grown in axenic culture, we initially expected to find an extensive genomic remodeling compared to the other mycobionts that easily grow in culture. We do not find evidence for this. Analyzing both the contraction of gene families and the loss of genes, we observe that L. pustulata and Umbilicaria muehlenbergii – its close relative that is easily grown in culture – share most of these. Furthermore, L. pustulata does not show an excessive loss of evolutionary old and well-conserved genes. These effects are mirrored on the functional level, as neither gene family contractions nor gene losses show a functional enrichment. This is partially due to the lack of functional reference data, analogous to the genes gained in the Lecanoromycetes, rendering their characterization hard. Thus, further studies on the genomic consequences of lichenization and differences in symbiotic dependence will have to be conducted, including larger taxon sets. This will be even more important for the photobionts, as the Chlorophyta are even more sparsely sampled today, hindering an effective functional and evolutionary study.
Fossile Rohstoffe dienen in unserer heutigen Gesellschaft als Energiequelle und als Rohstofflieferant für Grund-, Feinchemikalien und Pharmazeutika. Sie tragen jedoch zum Klimawandel und Umweltverschmutzung bei. Lignocellulosische Biomasse ist eine erneuerbare und nachhaltige Alternative, die durch biotechnologische Prozesse erschlossen werden kann. Die Bäckerhefe Saccharomyces cerevisiae ist ein sehr gut untersuchter Modellorganismus, für den es zahlreiche genetische Werkzeuge und Analysemethoden gibt. Zudem wird S. cerevisiae häufig in biotechnologischen Prozessen eingesetzt, da diese Hefe robust gegenüber industriellen Bedingungen wie niedrigen pH-Werten, toxischen Chemikalien, osmotischem und mechanischem Stress ist. Die Pentose D-Xylose ist ein wesentlicher Bestandteil von lignocellulosischer Biomasse, die aber nicht natürlicherweise von der Bäckerhefe verwerten werden kann. Für eine kommerzielle Herstellung von Produkten aus lignocellulosischer Biomasse muss S. cerevisiae D-Xylose effektiv verwerten. Für die Bäckerhefe konnten heterologe Stoffwechselwege etabliert werden, damit diese D-Xylose verwerten kann. Für eine effiziente Xyloseverwertung bleiben dennoch zahlreiche Herausforderungen bestehen. Unter anderem nehmen die Zellen D-Xylose über ihre endogenen Hexosetransporter nur langsam auf. Die heterologe Xylose-Isomerase (XI) besitzt in S. cerevisiae eine geringe Aktivität für die Isomerisierung von D-Xylose. Unspezifische Aldosereduktasen konkurrieren mit der Xylose-Isomerase um das gleiche Substrat und produzieren Xylitol, ein starker Inhibitor der Xylose-Isomerase. Eine Möglichkeit die Umsatzrate von Enzymen zu steigern und Substrate vor Nebenreaktionen zu schützen, ist die Anwendung von Substrate Channeling Strategien. Bei Substrate Channeling befinden sich die beteiligten Enzyme in einem Komplex, wodurch die Substrate lokal angereichert werden und von einem aktiven Zentrum zum nächsten weitergeleitet werden, ohne Diffusion in den restlichen Reaktionsraum. In dieser Arbeit wurde untersucht, ob ein Komplex zwischen einem membranständigen Transporter und einem löslichen Enzym konstruiert werden kann, um durch Substrate Channeling eine verbesserte Substrat-Verwertung zu erreichen. Die Xylose-Isomerase aus C. phytofermentans und die endogene Hexose-Permease Gal2 sollten in dieser Arbeit als Modellproteine in S. cerevisiae-Zellen mit Hilfe von Protein-Protein-Interaktionsmodulen (PPIM) in räumliche Nähe zueinander gebracht werden.
Die Expression verschiedener PPIM konnte in S. cerevisiae mittels Western Blot nachgewiesen werden. Auch Fusionsproteine aus unterschiedlichen PPIM wurden in dieser Hefe exprimiert. Die PPIM binden komplementäre PPIM oder kurze Peptidliganden, welche an die Xylose-Isomerase und an den Gal2-Transporter fusioniert wurden. Die Funktionalität beider Proteine wurde mittels in vivo und in vitro Tests untersucht. Die Xylose-Isomerase mit N-terminalen Liganden des WH1-Protein-Protein-Interaktionsmoduls (WH1L-XI) und der Gal2-Transporter mit N-terminalen SYNZIP2-Protein-Protein-Interaktionsmodul (SZ2-Gal2) erwiesen sich als geeignete Kandidaten für weitere Untersuchungen. Mittels indirekter Immunfluoreszenz konnte die Ko-Lokalisierung von SZ2-Gal2 und WH1L-XI, die einander über ein Scaffold-Protein binden, nachgewiesen werden.
Transformanten, in denen ein Komplex aus Transporter, Scaffold-Protein und Xylose-Isomerase gebildet wurde, zeigten bessere Fermentationseigenschaften gegenüber der Scaffold-freien Kontrolle und dem Wildtyp: Sie verwerteten Xylose schneller, bildeten weniger vom unerwünschten Nebenprodukt Xylitol, produzierten mehr Ethanol und wiesen eine höhere Ethanolausbeute auf. Der beobachtete Substrate Channeling Effekt kompensierte die geringere Enzymaktivität der WH1L-XI im Vergleich zum Wildtyp-Protein. Die Wirksamkeit des Substrate Channeling wurde verringert, wenn die Bildung des Komplexes aus Transporter, Scaffold-Protein und Xylose-Isomerase gestört wurde, indem ein getaggtes GFP mit dem Scaffold-Protein um die Bindungsstelle an Gal2 konkurrierte. Dies zeigt, dass die positive Wirkung auf die Komplex-Bildung zwischen XI und Gal2 zurück zu führen ist. Die Fermentationseigenschaften konnten gesteigert werden, indem der zuvor zwischen SZ2-Zipper und Gal2-Transporter verwendete Linker, der aus zehn Aminosäuren von Glycin, Arginin und Prolin (GRP10) bestand, durch einen aus Glycin und Alanin (GA10) ersetzt wurde. Die verbesserten Fermentationseigenschaften beruhten auf einem Substrate Channeling Effekt und einer gesteigerten Aufnahmerate des SZ2-GA10-Gal2-Transporters. Ein Vergleich der Strukturvorhersagen von SZ2-GRP10-Gal2 und SZ2-GA10-Gal2 zeigte, dass der GRP10-Linker einen unstrukturierten, flexiblen Linker ausbildet, während der GA10-Linker eine starre α-Helix ausbildet. Die Struktur und der Transportprozess von Gal2 sind nicht aufgeklärt. Bei verwandten Transportern geht man davon aus, dass Substrate durch Konformationsänderungen ins Innere der Zelle transportiert werden, indem die beiden Domänen gegeneinander klappen. Die α-Helix könnte die Geschwindigkeit der Konformationsänderungen begünstigen.
Durch Kontrollexperimente konnte ausgeschlossen werden, dass die gesteigerten Fermentationseigenschaften eine Folge der Stabilisierung der XI- und Gal2-Fusionsproteine durch das Anfügen des Liganden oder durch Komplexbildung mit dem Scaffold-Protein waren. Substrate Channeling zwischen Gal2 und XI entsteht durch die Komplexbildung mit dem Scaffold-Protein, wodurch sich Gal2 und XI in räumlicher Nähe zueinander befinden. Dieser Effekt beruht möglicherweise zusätzlich aufgrund einer hohen örtlichen Ansammlung dieser Proteine, da die tetramere XI weitere Scaffold-Proteine binden könnte, welche weitere Gal2-Transporter binden könnte. Darüber hinaus sammeln sich Transporter an bestimmten Orten der Membran an und Transporter mit ähnlicher oder gleicher Transmembransequenz tendieren dazu zu ko-lokalisieren. Hierdurch könnten Gal2-XI-Agglomerate entstehen und Xylose wird mit hoher Wahrscheinlichkeit von einer der vielen Xylose-Isomerasen umgesetzt.
The fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster is one of the most important biological model organisms, but only the comparative approach with closely related species provides insights into the evolutionary diversification of insects. Of particular interest is the live imaging of fluorophores in developing embryos. It provides data for the analysis and comparison of the threedimensional morphogenesis as a function of time. However, for all species apart from Drosophila, for example the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum, essentially no established standard operation procedures are available and the pool of data and resources is sparse. The goal of my PhD project was to address these limitations. I was able to accomplish the following milestones:
- Development of the hemisphere and cobweb mounting methods for the non-invasive imaging of Tribolium embryos in light sheet-based fluorescence microscopes and characterization of most crucial embryogenetic events.
- Comprehensive documentation of methods as protocols that describe (i) beetle rearing in the laboratory, (ii) preparation of embryos, (ii) calibration of light sheet-based fluorescence microscopes, (iv) recording over several days, (v) embryo retrieval as a quality control as well as (vi) data processing.
- Adaption of the methods to record and analyze embryonic morphogenesis of the Mediterranean fruit fly Ceratitis capitata and the two-spotted cricket Gryllus bimaculatus as well as integration of the data into an evolutionary context.
- Further development of the hemisphere method to allow the bead-based / landmark-based registration and fusion of three-dimensional images acquired along multiple directions to compensate the shadowing effect.
- Development of the BugCube, a web-based computer program that allows to share image data, which was recorded by using light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy, with colleagues.
- Invention and experimental proof-of-principle of the (i) AGameOfClones vector concept that creates homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically. Additionally, partial proof-of-principle of the (ii) AClashOfStrings vector concept that creates double homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically, as well as preliminary evaluation of the (iii) AStormOfRecords vector concept that creates triple homozygous transgenic insect lines systematically.
- Creation and performance screening of more than fifty transgenic Tribolium lines for the long-term imaging of embryogenesis in fluorescence microscopes, including the first Lifeact and histone subunit-based lines.
My primary results contribute significantly to the advanced fluorescence imaging approaches of insect species beyond Drosophila. The image data can be used to compare different strategies of embryonic morphogenesis and thus to interpret the respective phylogenetic context. My technological developments extend the methodological arsenal for insect model organisms considerably.
Within my perspective, I emphasize the importance of non-invasive long-term fluorescence live imaging to establish speciesspecific morphogenetic standards, discuss the feasibly of a morphologic ontology on the cellular level, suggest the ‘nested linearly decreasing phylogenetic relationship’ approach for evolutionary developmental biology, propose the live imaging of species hybrids to investigate speciation and finally outline how light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy contributes to the transition from on-demand to systematic data acquisition in developmental biology.
During my PhD project, I wrote a total of ten manuscripts, six of which were already published in peer-reviewed scientific journals. Additionally, I supervised four Master and two Bachelor projects whose scientific questions were inspired by the topic of my PhD work.
The human brain is one of the most complex biological systems. More than 100 billion neurons build networks that control basic body functions and highly coordinated movements, enable us to express emotions, feelings and thoughts and to store memories over years and even throughout life time. Ultimately, “We are who we are because of what we learn and what we remember” (Kandel 2006). Under pathological conditions, the brain function is challenged. Most if not all neurological diseases have in common that they are either triggered and/or accompanied by inflammatory processes of brain tissue, referred to as neuroinflammation. Such inflammatory processes directly affect an elementary neural mechanism relevant for learning and memory: synaptic plasticity. Indeed, neurons are highly dynamic structures and able to respond to specific stimuli with morphological, functional and molecular adaptations that modify the strength and number of neuronal contact sides (synapses). Hence, the main motivation of this thesis was to identify the neural targets through which inflammation affects brain function and synaptic plasticity in particular. The principles of synaptic plasticity have been studied intensively in the hippocampus, an anatomical structure localized within the temporal lobes that is essential for the consolidation of memories and spatial navigation. Synaptic plasticity is coordinated by complex interactions of thousands of molecules and proteins. Among those proteins, synaptopodin (SP) is localized at a strategic position within excitatory synapses and has been shown to be fundamentally involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity.
To induce neuroinflammation and to study its effects on SP as well as synaptic plasticity, the classic model of lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was applied. This thesis discloses that inflammatory processes impair the ability of neurons to express hippocampal synaptic plasticity in vivo, which is accompanied by a downregulation of SP-mRNA and protein level in the mouse hippocampus, indicating that SP is one of the cellular targets through which inflammatory signaling pathways affect synaptic plasticity and hence neural function. To learn more about the cellular and molecular mechanisms, an in vitro LPS model was established using entorhino-hippocampal organotypic slice cultures (OTCs).
While confirming the major effect of LPS on SP, this thesis furthermore shows that neuroinflammation crucially involves the cytokine TNFα to transduce its effects on SP, and that microglial cells are the main source of TNFα production under inflammatory conditions. In an attempt to learn more about the mechanisms that are affected under conditions of neuroinflammation effects of retinoic acid (RA), a vitamin A derivate were tested. This is mainly because SP as well as RA have been shown to modulate synaptic plasticity through the accumulation of glutamate receptors at the postsynaptic site: SP via the association with the actincytoskeleton as well as intracellular calcium stores, and RA directly via the modulation of local protein synthesis within dendrites. Indeed, in slice cultures exposed to RA, hippocampal SP cluster size is upregulated, both in vitro and in vivo. Intriguingly, a lack of SP prevents RA-induced synaptic strengthening of hippocampal dentate granule cells in OTCs. This suggests a direct contribution of SP in RA-dependent synaptic plasticity. Interestingly, co-immunoprecipitation of SP-mRNA together with the RA-receptor alpha (RARα) further implies that RA directly controls synaptic plasticity via regulation of SP-protein expression. It is therefore interesting to speculate that RA may increase SP expression or prevent its reduction and thus alterations in synaptic plasticity under conditions of neuroinflammation. Taken together, this thesis identifies SP as an important neuronal target of TNFα-mediated alterations in synaptic plasticity. Moreover, the work on RA indicates that SP affects the ability of neurons to express synaptic plasticity by modulating/mediating local protein synthesis. Since neuroinflammatory processes are an elementary concomitant feature and/or cause of neurological diseases, I am confident that future work on the effects of inflammatory processes on brain function may provide the perspective in devising new therapeutic strategies for the treatment of neuropathologies such as Alzheimer’s disease, multiple sclerosis, epilepsy or stroke, by targeting SP expression and SP-mediated synaptic plasticity.
Tissue integrity is defined by the composition and connection of cells as a structural and functional unit. It is modulated by a magnitude of processes including differentiation, survival, controlled death and adhesion of cells. Besides, external factors such as physical forces are also involved. A suitable model system to study all modalities of tissue integrity is the mammary gland. Postnatally and within the reproductive phase, the mammary gland undergoes morphological and functional modifications that periodically loosen or strengthen tissue integrity. An important point in the development of the mammary gland is the regression during weaning, also termed involution. The transition from lactation to involution is important for a controlled loss of tissue integrity. In this transition, collective cell death is initiated but not yet prominent enabling the mammary gland to fully recover lactation.
In this thesis, modalities of tissue integrity were investigated using three-dimensional cell cultures (i.e. spheroids) and the mammary gland as model systems. In the context of this thesis, I established (1) an immunofluorescence staining protocol and its detailed evaluation. Furthermore, I studied (2) the role of cell survival during mammary gland development, (3) the effect of physical forces that modulate tissue integrity and (4) the contribution of proteins to cell adhesion and growth.
Since a homogeneous fluorescence stain of the specimen is necessary for quantitative analysis, an immunofluorescence staining protocol was established to stain large spheroids in toto. The evaluation contributes qualitative and quantitative criteria that judge the specificity, intensity and homogeneity of the stain. Based on this approach, it was possible to demonstrate the morphological and functional characteristics that spheroids share with the mammary gland in vivo. These characteristics included the synthesis of extracellular matrix, the development of polarized acinar structures and lactogenic differentiation.
The role of cell survival during mammary gland development was analyzed by means of the expression profile of the pro-survival protein BAG3. The expression of BAG3 differed in the progress of mammary gland development. While the expression was low during pregnancy, it rose in the lactation phase and peaked within the first days of involution, indicating that BAG3 is associated with early involution in the mammary gland. In vitro experiments related the expression of BAG3 to cell survival in mammary epithelial cells.
Physical forces naturally occur during developmental processes influence tissue integrity during the initiation of mammary gland involution. The influence of physical force applied as compression on mammary epithelial spheroids was investigated. A morphological analysis showed that following a lag, the cell nuclei volume changed upon compression. A short-term compression induced the activation of caspases. A prolonged compression reduced the activity of caspases. This suggests the induction of a process that allows cells the adaption to changing environmental conditions. BAG3 is known to be involved in mechanical stress-induced autophagy, also known as chaperone assisted selective autophagy (CASA). Compression of spheroids did not induce CASA. The experimentally applied strain was not comparable to the strain found in the alveolar cells during involution in vivo. Thus, whether or not CASA is activated during mammary gland involution remains elusive. Nevertheless, the methodical approach to apply compression on spheroids in vitro is a model to study the influence of physical forces on cell aggregates.
Apart from cell survival and physical forces, growth and adhesion of cells affect tissue integrity. A spheroid formation assay and subsequent data analysis and computational modeling enabled the investigation of these processes in a non-adhesive environment. The analysis suggested that spheroid formation follows a reaction-controlled process, in which cells do not necessarily form a connection when they collide. The loss of function of either E-cadherin or actin strongly inhibited the formation of a spheroid. The analysis further revealed that neither E-cadherin nor actin influence the chance of the cells to form a connection when they collide. Both molecules are more important in stabilizing established connections. Depolymerization of microtubules still allowed spheroids to form, but the formation was decelerated and growth of the final spheroids was inhibited. The results from computational modeling suggested that microtubules act on cell adhesion through different mechanisms, which also vary among different cell types. The inhibition of FAK phosphorylation at Y397, a downstream target of integrin signaling, and the analysis of FAK protein levels in spheroids showed that integrin-mediated signaling is not prominent in three-dimensional spheroids formed from non-invasive cells. A deletion of BAG3 gene expression increased the number of dead cells in forming spheroids suggesting that BAG3 predominantly affects cell survival.
The results of this thesis identified and characterized adhesion- and survival-associated proteins that are important for tissue integrity. This thesis suggests that a BAG3-dependent cell survival mechanism is prominent at the beginning of mammary gland involution. Future studies will have to identify the related factors and inducers of tissue integrity loss in the mammary gland. This will shed light on the physiology of the organ and could explain the disorders that destroy its integrity. In addition, this thesis contributes to a better understanding of spontaneous cell aggregation, the aggregate organization and implies a role of cell migration in these processes. Future studies that focus on three-dimensional cell migration could explain, how cell migration is promoted and to which extent it supports tissue integrity.
Introduction:
The evolutionary patterns of symbiotic organisms are inferred using cophylogenetic methods. Congruent phylogenies indicate cospeciation or host-switches to closely-related hosts, whereas incongruent topologies indicate independent speciation. Recent studies suggest that coordinated speciation is a rare event, and may not occur even in the highly specialized associations. The cospeciation hypothesis was mainly tested for free-living mutualistic associations, such as plant-pollinator interactions, and host-parasitic systems but was rarely tested on obligate, mutualistic associations involving intimate physiological interactions. Symbionts with lower partner selectivity may not experience coordinated speciation due to frequent switching of partners. On the other hand, symbionts with high partner selectivity may influence each other’s evolution owing to the highly interdependent lifestyles. Symbiont association patterns are also influenced by habitat and it has been proposed that symbiotic interactions are stronger in warm regions as compared to cooler regions (also referred as latitudinal gradient of biotic specialization). This hypothesis however, has recently been challenged and it has been suggested that a gradient of biotic specialization may not exist at all. Reliable species concepts are a prerequisite for understanding the association and evolutionary patterns of symbiotic organisms. The species concepts of many groups traditionally relied on the morphological species concept, which may not be adequate for distinguishing species due to the: i) homoplasious nature of morphological characters, an due to the inability to distinguish cryptic species. Thus phylogenetic species concept along with coalescent-based species delimitation approaches, which utilize molecular data for inferring species boundaries have been used widely for resolving taxonomic relationships. Lichens are obligatory symbiotic associations consisting of a fungal partner (mycobiont) and one or more photosynthetic partners, algae, and/or cyanobacteria (photobionts). I used the lichen forming fungal genus Protoparmelia as my study system, which consists of ~25-30 previously described species inhabiting different habitats, from the arctic to the tropics. This makes Protoparmelia an ideal system to explore the association and evolutionary patterns across different macrohabitats.
Objectives:
The objectives of this thesis were to 1. Elucidate the phylogenetic position of Protoparmelia within Lecanorales, and infer the monophyly of Protoparmelia; 2. Understand species diversity within Protoparmelia s.str. using coalescent-based species delimitation approaches; and 3. To identify the Trebouxia species associated with Protoparmelia using phylogenetic and species delimitation approaches and to infer the association and cophylogenetic patterns Protoparmelia and Trebouxia in different macrohabitats.
Results and discussion:
Chapter 1: Taxonomic position of Protoparmelia
In the first part of this study I explored the taxonomic position of Protoparmelia within the order Lecanorales. Overall this study included 54 taxa from four families, sequenced at five loci (178 sequences). I found Protoparmelia to be polyphyletic and sister to Parmeliaceae.
Chapter 2: Multilocus phylogeny and species delimitation of Protoparmelia spp.
In this part of the study, I identified and delimited the Protoparmelia species forming a monophyletic clade sister to Parmeliaceae i.e., Protoparmelia sensu stricto group, based on the multilocus phylogeny and coalescent-based species delimitation approaches. I included 18 previously described and three unidentified Protoparmelia species, which represents ~70% of the total described species, and 73 other taxa, sequenced at six loci. I found that the sensu stricto group comprised of 25 supported clades instead of 12 previously described Protoparmelia species. I tested the speciation probabilities of these 25 clades using species delimitation softwares BP&P and spedeSTEM. I found nine previously unrecognized lineages in Protoparmelia and I propose the presence of at least 23 species for Protoparmelia s.str., in contrast to the 12 described species included in the study.
Chapter 3: Association and cophylogenetic patterns of Protoparmelia and its symbiotic partner Trebouxia
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Die Psoriasis vulgaris (PsV) ist eine immunvermittelte entzündliche Erkrankung der Haut mit einer Prävalenzrate von 2-3 %, sodass etwa zwei Millionen Menschen in Deutschland an dieser erkrankt sind. Charakteristisch für die PsV sind veränderte Hautareale (Plaques), die im Rahmen der der entzündungsbedingten Durchblutungssteigerung gerötet erscheinen und eine silbrig-weiße Schuppung als Resultat einer vermehrten Abschilferung abgestorbener Keratinozyten aus der hyperproliferativen Epidermis aufweisen.
In dieser Arbeit wurde die Bedeutung des proinflammatorischen Zytokins granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) in der Pathogenese einer modellhaften Experimentalerkrankung der PsV untersucht. GM-CSF wird unter anderem von Interleukin (IL-) 17 produzierenden T-Helferzellen (Th17-Zellen) sezerniert, deren pathogenetische Bedeutung für die PsV gut etabliert ist. Die pathogene Wirkung von GM-CSF als Effektorzytokin konnte bereits in Tiermodellen anderer Th17-vermittelter Autoimmunerkrankungen wie der multiplen Sklerose und der rheumatoiden Arthritis (RA) gezeigt und die therapeutische Wirkung von GM-CSF-neutralisierenden Antikörpern in klinischen Studien an RA-Patienten demonstriert werden.
Das in dieser Arbeit angewendete murine Krankheitsmodell der Imiquimod (IMQ-) induzierten psoriasiformen Dermatitis wird durch die topische Anwendung des Medikaments Aldara®, dessen Wirkstoff IMQ ist, ausgelöst und führt zu einer Entzündung der Haut, die in vielen Aspekten dem humanen Krankheitsbild einer PsV ähnelt. Die pathogenetische Bedeutung von GM-CSF für die IMQ-induzierte psoriasiforme Dermatitis wurde über zwei unterschiedliche experimentelle Ansätze untersucht. So wurde GM-CSF in C57Bl/6J Mäusen mittels eines spezifischen, rekombinanten murinen Antikörpers in der Induktionsphase des Krankheitsmodells neutralisiert und zeitgleich der modifizierte Psoriasis Area Severity Index (PASI-)Score als Parameter des Schweregrades der klinischen Manifestationen ermittelt. Des Weiteren wurde am Versuchsende die Infiltration von Immunzellen in das entzündete Gewebeareal untersucht. Diese Ergebnisse wurden mit den Daten einer Behandlungsgruppe, nach Applikation eines IgG-Isotyp identischen Kontrollantikörpers verglichen. Dabei zeigte die Neutralisierung des Zytokins einen therapeutischen Effekt, der in einem signifikant niedrigeren PASI-Score, einer verringerten Tnfa mRNA Expression und einer reduzierten Infiltration mit neutrophilen Granulozyten resultierte.
Parallel zu diesen Versuchen wurde die Modellerkrankung auch in einer GM-CSF-defizienten C57Bl/6J Mauslinien (GM-CSF-/-) studiert. Die funktionelle Inaktivität des GM-CSF-kodierenden Csf2 Gens wurde 1994 durch gezielte genetische Manipulation etabliert. Unter den experimentellen Bedingungen war der Schweregrad der IMQ-induzierten psoriasiformen Dermatitis in GM-CSF-/- Mäusen nicht signifikant different von dem der wildtypischen (Wt) Mäuse und zeigte somit im Gegensatz zu den Ergebnissen aus den Versuchsreihen der Antikörper vermittelten Zytokinneutralisierung keinen offensichtlichen Hinweis auf eine GM-CSF-Abhängigkeit. In den GM-CSF-defizienten Tieren war jedoch nach IMQ-Induktion eine signifikant höhere Il6 und Il22 mRNA Expression am Entzündungsort im Vergleich zu den Wt Mäusen auffällig. Aufgrund dieser Ergebnisse wurde der Phänotyp der GM-CSF-defizienten Mäuse genauer untersucht und eine vermehrte Anzahl plasmazytoider dendritischen Zellen (pDCs) in Milz und Lymphknoten nachgewiesen. Diese Zellen werden im Rahmen ihrer Differenzierung aus Vorläuferzellen durch GM-CSF suppressiv reguliert und sind sowohl in die Entwicklung der PsV im Menschen als auch die Pathogenese der IMQ-induzierten psoriasiformen Dermatitis involviert. Aufgrund des in den sekundären lymphatischen Organen GM-CSF-defizienter Mäuse expandierten pDC-Kompartiments wurde die Beteiligung dieser Zellen in der Initiationsphase des Modells analysiert. Im Vergleich mit GM-CSF-suffizienten C57Bl/6J Mäusen weisen die Tiere der GM-CSF-defizienten Mauslinie zu diesen Zeitpunkten eine verstärkte Infiltration von pDCs in die Haut auf. Für pDCs ist bekannt, dass sie über die Produktion von IL-6 und TNF die Effektorzelldifferenzierung aktivierter, naiver T-Lymphozyten in Richtung Th22-Zellen polarisieren können. Dieser Mechanismus liefert ein hypothetisches Konzept, das die Ergebnisse zur gesteigerten IL-6-Produktion und Differenzierung IL-22-produzierender T-Zellen in IMQ-behandelten GM-CSF-/- Mäusen im Kontext der nachweisbaren Expansion von pDCs, erklären könnte. Dieser in den GM-CSF-/- Mäusen nachweisbare alternative Pathogenesemechanismus, ist offenbar geeignet die proinflammatorische Wirkung des genetisch fehlenden Zytokins zu kompensieren, aber hinsichtlich seiner Etablierung über ein verändertes pDC-Kompartiment von Dauer und Ausmaß der GM-CSF-Defizienz abhängig. So erklärt sich, warum die zeitlich limitierte Antikörper vermittelte GM-CSF-Neutralisierung in GM-CSF-suffizienten-Mäusen zu keiner pDC-Expansion und Steigerung von IL-6 und IL-22 Expression nach IMQ-Induktion führt.
Die GM-CSF-Neutralisierung durch einen rekombinanten murinen Antikörper reduziert deutlich die Krankheitsschwere der IMQ-induzierten psoriasiformen Dermatitis und belegt damit das therapeutische Potenzial dieses Therapieansatzes für die Humanerkrankung der PsV. Die unter angeborener GM-CSF-Defizienz in den Studien darüber hinaus aufgedeckten Veränderungen des pDC-Kompartiments sind von potenzieller Relevanz für zukünftige therapeutische Anwendungen dieses Prinzips, da unter einer dauerhaften GM-CSF-Neutralisierung mit therapeutischen Antikörpern ein Monitoring dieser Zellpopulation empfehlenswert erscheint z.B. über veränderte Interferonsignaturen durch pDCs, um mögliche Wirkverluste, aber auch unerwünschte Effekte zu erkennen.
Research in cell and developmental biology requires the application of three-dimensional model systems that reproduce the natural environment of cells. Processes in developmental biology are therefore studied in entire systems like insects or plants. In cell biology, three-dimensional cell cultures (e.g. spheroids or organoids) model the physiology and pathology of cells, tissues or organs. In all systems, the cellular neighborhood and interactions, but also physicochemical influences, are realistically presented. The production and handling of these model systems is rather simple and allows for reproducible characterization.
Confocal and light sheet-based fluorescence microscopy (LSFM) enable the observation of these systems while maintaining their three-dimensional integrity. LSFM is applicable to imaging live samples at high spatio-temporal resolution over long periods of time. The quality of the acquired datasets enables the extraction of quantitative features about morphology, functionality and dynamics in the context of the complete system. This approach is referred to as image-based systems biology. Exploiting the potential of the generated datasets requires an image analysis pipeline for data management, visualization and the retrieval of biologically meaningful values.
The goal of this thesis was to identify, develop and optimize modules of the image analysis pipeline. The modules cover data management and reduction, visualization, reconstruction of multiview image datasets, the segmentation and tracking of cell nuclei and the extraction of quantitative features. The modules were developed in an application-driven manner to test and ensure their applicability to real datasets from three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy. The underlying datasets were taken from research projects in developmental biology in insects and plants, as well as from cell biology.
The datasets acquired in fluorescence microscopy are typically complex and require common image processing steps in order to manage, visualize, and analyze the datasets. The first module accomplishes automatic structuring of large image datasets, reduces the data amount by image cropping and compression and computes maximum projection images along different spatial directions. The second module corrects for intensity variations in the generated maximum projection images that occur as a function of time. The program was published as a part of an article in Nature Protocols. Another developed module named BugCube provides a web-based platform to visualize and share the processed image datasets.
In LSFM, samples can be rotated in-between two acquisitions enabling the generation of multiview image datasets. Prior to my work, Frederic Strobl and Alexander Ross acquired the complete embryogenesis of the red flour beetle, Tribolium castaneum, and the field cricket, Gryllus bimaculatus, with LSFM. I evaluated a plugin for the software FIJI as a module for the reconstruction of such datasets. The plugin was optimized for automation and efficiency. We obtained the first high quality three-dimensional reconstructions of Tribolium and Gryllus datasets.
Optical clearing increases the penetration depth into samples, thus providing endpoint images of entire three-dimensional objects with cellular detail. This work contributes a quantitative characterization module that was applied to endpoint images of optically cleared spheroids. A program for the generation of ground truth datasets was developed in order to evaluate the cell nuclei segmentation performance. The program was part of a paper that was published in BMC Bioinformatics. Using the program, I could show that the cell nuclei segmentation is robust and accurate. Approaches from computational topology and graph theory complete the segmentation of cell nuclei. Thus, the developed module provides a comprehensive quantitative characterization of spheroids on the level of the individual cell, the cell neighborhood and the whole cell aggregate. The module was employed in four applications to analyze the influence of different stress conditions on the morphology and cellular arrangement of cells in spheroids. The module was accepted for publication in Scientific Reports along with the results for one application. The cell nuclei segmentation further provided a data source for simulation models that used correlation functions to identify structural zones in spheroids. These results were published in Royal Society Interface.
The final part of this work presents a module for cell tracking and lineage reconstruction. In collaboration with Dr. Alexis Maizel, Dr. Jens Fangerau and Dr. Daniel von Wangenheim, I developed a module to track the positions of all cells involved in lateral root formation in Arabidopsis thaliana and used the extracted positions for extensive data analysis. We reconstructed the cell lineages and established the first atlas of all founder cells that contribute to the formation. The analysis of the retrieved data allowed us to study conserved and individual patterns in lateral root formation. The atlas and parts of the analysis presented in this thesis were published in Current Biology.
In this thesis, I developed modules for an image analysis pipeline in three-dimensional fluorescence microscopy and applied them in interdisciplinary research projects. The modules enabled the organization, processing, visualization and analysis of the datasets. The perspective of the image analysis pipeline is not restricted to image-based systems biology. With ongoing development of the image analysis pipeline, it can also be a valuable tool for medical diagnostics or industrial high-throughput approaches.
In der vorliegenden dreiteiligen Studie werden Mongolische Wüstenrennmäuse untersucht, deren Hörspektren im tieffrequenten Bereich und deren Unterscheidungsfähigkeiten von Kommunikationsrufen denen des Menschen ähneln. Die extrazelluläre Aktivität im primären auditorischen Kortex (AI) der narkotisierten Versuchstiere, evoziert durch Reintöne und arteigene Kommunikationsrufe, wird in der linken (LH) und rechten Gehirnhemisphäre (RH) aufgenommen. Es werden Multikanalelektroden (16 Eingangskanäle) verwendet, welche eine simultane Aufnahme der neuronalen Aktivitäten aller kortikalen Schichten ermöglichen. Zur Analyse der neuronalen Mechanismen werden Wellenformen einzelner Elektrodenkanäle und Aktivitätsprofile, bestehend aus den Wellenformen aller Elektrodenkanäle in einem Zeitfenster von 600 ms, auf Ebene von Aktionspotentialen (MUA), lokalen Feldpotentialen (LFP) und Current-source-density (CSD) Analysen, untersucht. Während MUAs die neuronalen Aktionspotentiale im Nahfeld der Elektrode reflektieren, umfassen die LFPs die summierten Potentiale (inhibitorisch und exzitatorisch) von Neuronen eines größeren Areals. Die CSDs hingegen werden durch die Integration von LFP-Wellenformen benachbarter, linear angeordneter Elektrodenkanäle berechnet und ermöglichen so eine Lokalisation der Ursprünge geräuschspezifischer Aktivitätsflüsse.
Im ersten Teilprojekt werden CSD-Profile in Antwort auf unterschiedliche Reintöne untersucht, um die Aktivitätskomponenten, die so genannten Sinks, für weiterführende Analysen zu quantifizieren. Es können zwei primäre (s1 und s2), drei mittlere (s3-s5) und vier späte (s6-s9) Sinks in einem Zeitfenster von 600 ms definiert werden. Eine Veränderung der Stimulusfrequenz eine Oktave über und unter der charakteristischen Frequenz (CF), beziehungsweise des Lautstärkepegels = 24 dB über der minimalen Schwelle, führt zu qualitativen Veränderungen in der CSD-Profilstruktur. Die Sink s7 wird durch Stimuli mit niedrigem Lautstärkepegel weniger verlässlich evoziert, wohingegen die Sink s9 bei Stimuli eine Oktave über der CF verlässlicher evoziert wird. Die Ergebnisse weisen darauf hin, dass im AI die spektralen Informationen eine Oktave über und unter der CF asymmetrisch integriert werden.
Auf Einzelschichtebene konnte bereits gezeigt werden, dass spektrotemporale Eigenschaften von Stimuli durch MUAs schlechter reflektiert wurden als durch LFPs, was vermutlich eine direkte Konsequenz der unterschiedlichen Ursprünge der Signaltypen ist. Daher werden im zweiten Teilprojekt die spezifischen Unterschiede der MUA-, LFP- und CSD-Antworten auf Ebene kortikaler Schichten und kompletter laminarer Profile untersucht, um die Unterschiede und den Informationsgehalt der drei Signaltypen zu charakterisieren. Signifikante Unterschiede, welche durch zwei Reintöne und sieben Kommunikationssignale evoziert werden, können verstärkt im mittleren und späten Latenzbereich und in granulären und infragranulären Schichten vorgefunden werden. Der Grad der Rufspezifizität ist in LFP und CSD-Antworten im Vergleich zu demjenigen in MUA-Antworten größer. Die Segregationsleistung ist im Vergleich zu einzelnen kortikalen Schichten in den von kortikalen Kolumnen abgeleiteten laminaren Profilen um den Faktor 1,8-2,6 erhöht. Die Neuronenpopulationen einzelner kortikaler Kolumnen sind vermutlich wichtig für die Kodierung von Geräuschen, welche sich in ihren spektrotemporalen Eigenschaften unterscheiden.
Viele vorangegangene Studien konnten zeigen, dass die Gehirnhemisphären akustische Signale asymmetrisch verarbeiten. Daher werden im dritten Hauptteil die laminaren Profile der LH und RH quantitativ und statistisch verglichen. Die MUA-, CSD-Profile und im geringeren Maße auch die LFP-Profile zeigen systematische Unterschiede auf signifikantem Niveau in der Dauer, Onset Latenz und vertikalen Ausdehnung bestimmter Aktivitäten. Kommunikationsrufe evozieren in der LH, welche beim Menschen auf Sprachstimuli spezialisiert ist, im Vergleich zur RH komplexere CSD-Profile. Die neuronale MUA-, LFP- und CSD-Aktivitätsstärke ist in der RH für weniger komplexe Stimuli teilweise signifikant erhöht. Die Asymmetrie in der Auftrittsverlässlichkeit der Sink s6 lässt vermuten, dass sich die intrakolumnäre Vernetzung in Schicht VIa zwischen der LH und RH unterscheidet. Die wenigen, signifikanten und nicht systematischen Unterschiede zwischen den Sink-Parametern der LH und RH nach kortikaler Ausschaltung mit dem GABAA-Rezeptor Agonist Muscimol weisen darauf hin, dass die Hemisphärenasymmetrie durch Prozesse des ipsilateralen Kortex maßgeblich beeinflusst wird.
In the dentate gyrus (DG) of the mammalian hippocampus, neurogenesis continues to take place throughout an organism’s life. Adult neurogenesis includes proliferation and differentiation of neural stem cells into dentate granule cells (GCs) that mature and integrate into the existing cellular network. This thesis work presents a novel approach that enables longitudinal examination of living postnatally generated GCs in their endogenous niche by using retroviral (RV) labeling in organotypic entorhino-hippocampal slice cultures (OTCs). Older GCs were fluorescence-labeled with an adeno-associated virus controlled by the synapsin 1 promoter (AAV-Syn). The combination of time-lapse imaging and 3-D reconstruction of newborn developing GCs and older, more mature GCs enabled comparative analyses of dendritic growth and cellular dynamics as well as investigations of spine formation and the establishment of synaptic contacts.
Postnatal neurogenesis was studied in the mouse and rat DG in vivo by analysis of the distribution of chemical neuronal maturation markers doublecortin (DCX) and calbindin in combination with the GC marker Prox1 between P7 and P42. The marker expression patterns at different time points indicated that the number of mature GCs increased gradually over time and that young, immature GCs were added to the inner layers of the granule cell layer (GCL), as is the case in the adult brain. The most substantial shift in GC maturation took place between P7 and P14, though GCs in the rat DG matured faster (i.e. by ~5 days) than GCs in the mouse. Immunocytochemical in vitro analysis in OTCs at DIV 7, 14, and 28 exhibited a distribution of marker expression over time that was comparable to in vivo, though the number of DCX-expressing GCs was low at DIV 28, indicating a considerable decrease in neurogenesis rate over time in the OTC. Nevertheless, RV-labeling of newborn GCs at DIV 0 yielded successful visualization and enabled time-lapse imaging of complete developing GCs up to 4 weeks after mitosis. During the second week of development, newborn GCs exhibited a high level of structural dynamics, including extension and retraction of dendritic segments. In the third week, newborn GCs displayed high dendritic complexity which was followed by pronounced dendritic pruning. Finally, a phase of structural stabilization and local refinement could be observed during the fourth week. Older AAV-Syn-labeled GCs did not exhibit such dynamic structural remodeling. Anterograde tracing of entorhinal projection fibers using the biotinylated dextran amine Mini Ruby showed innervation of the outer molecular layer (OML) by entorhinal axons at early time points, i.e. DIV 8 when newborn GCs started to extend dendrites into the ML, as well as at DIV 20 when RV-labeled GCs exhibited elaborate dendritic trees with processes in the OML intermingling with entorhinal fibers. This shows that newborn GCs in the OTC grow into an area of existing entorhinal axon terminals, which is highly similar to the situation in the adult brain. Hence, the results show that postnatal neurogenesis can be studied effectively in the OTC system as a model of adult neurogenesis. The first appearance of spine-like protrusions in newborn GCs was observed two weeks post RV injection. Ultrastructural electron-microscopic images revealed that spines established synaptic contacts with axonal boutons. These findings suggest that newborn GCs are successfully integrated into the existing cellular circuitry in the OTC system. The high level of structural flexibility found in this study might be a necessary requisite of new neurons for successful dendritic maturation and functional integration into a neuronal network. Thus, live imaging of postnatally born GCs in the OTC appears as a useful novel approach to elucidate the mechanisms that affect cellular dynamics of neurogenesis.
In dieser Arbeit wurde der Hefepilz Xanthophyllomyces dendrorhous als vielseitige biotechnologische Plattform für die Produktion von Carotinoiden verwendet. Durch genetische Modifikationen der Carotinoidbiosynthese wurde ein Astaxanthin-Hochproduzent zur Akkumulation des farblosen Phytoens, das die menschliche Haut vor der schädlichen Wirkung der UV-Strahlung schützt und des gelben Zeaxanthins, das zur Förderung und Erhalt der Sehfähigkeit beiträgt, befähigt. Zur Generierung eines Phytoen-Hochproduzenten wurde das Gen crtI (Phytoen-Desaturase) inaktiviert und der Phytoengehalt durch Überexpression der Gene HMGR, crtE und crtYB gesteigert. Die Generierung eines Zeaxanthin-Hochproduzenten beinhaltete die Inaktivierung des Gens asy (Astaxanthin-Synthase) und die heterologe Expression einer bakteriellen ß-Carotin-Hydroxylase CrtZoXd.
Die Inaktivierung der Gene erfolgte mit spezifischen Knock-Out-Konstrukten, die mittels homologer Rekombination in crtI oder asy integrierten. Nachdem die Transgene auf Vektoren mit verschiedenen Antibiotikaresistenzen kloniert wurden, wurde die Überexpression durch genomische Integration in die ribosomale DNA erreicht. Anschließend wurde die Carotinoidzusammensetzung der Zellextrakte durch Hochleistungsflüssigkeitschromatographie an einer C18-Trennsäule oder durch Dünnschichtchromatographie bestimmt. Der Knock-Out-Nachweis erfolgte mittels Polymerase-Kettenreaktion und Amplifikation der Genloci, während die Anzahl integrierter Carotinoidgene durch quantitative Real-Time-PCR bestimmt wurde. Die Kultivierungen von X. dendrorhous wurden sowohl in Schikanekolben als auch in einem 2L-Bioreaktor durchgeführt.
Im Zuge der genetischen Modifikationen konnte der Ploidiegrad des Wildtyps bestimmt werden, der bis dahin unbekannt war. Durch das Auftreten von instabilen heterozygoten Stämmen und deren Überführung zu stabilen Homozygoten wurde die Existenz eines diploiden Genoms nachgewiesen. Um die für die biotechnologische Anwendung notwendige Stabilität der Carotinoidbiosyntheseleistung zu erreichen, wurden zwei Strategien entwickelt. Hierbei erfolgte die Stabilisierung der Stämme als Folge mitotischer Rekombination nach Subkultivierung und anschließender Farbselektion oder durch Induktion des sexuellen Zyklus und Sporulation.
Der crtI-Knock-Out führte zur Akkumulation von 3,6 mg/g dw Phytoen. Anschließend wurde die Limitierung der Phytoensynthese durch crtYB-Überexpression aufgehoben und die Versorgung der Carotinoidbiosynthese mit Vorläufermolekülen durch HMGR- und crtE-Überexpression erhöht. Im Bioreaktor wurde durch die Anwendung eines dreistufigen Fed-Batch-Prozesses, der eine effiziente Glucoseverwertung sicherstellte, mit 10,4 mg/g dw die höchste bis dato publizierte zelluläre Phytoenkonzentration im stabilisierten Hochproduzenten erreicht.
Der asy-Knock-Out führte zur Akkumulation von 4,5 mg/g dw ß-Carotin, das anschließend durch heterologe Expression der codon-optimierten ß-3,3-ß-Hydroxylase crtZoXd im Hochproduzenten zu 3,5 mg/g dw Zeaxanthin umgesetzt wurde. Zur Optimierung des Vorgehens wurden Knock-In-Konstrukte entwickelt, mit denen beide Schritte (Knock-Out und Integration von Carotinoidgenen) in nur einem molekular-biologischen Schritt durchgeführt und 94 % des in einem Wildtypstamm vorhanden ß-Carotins zu Zeaxanthin umgesetzt wurden. Die Optimierung der Wachstumsbedingungen bei der Bioreaktor-Kultivierung des stabilisierten Zeaxanthinproduzenten führte mit 10,8 mg/L zu einem 5-fach höheren Zeaxanthingehalt im Vergleich zur Schikane-Kultivierung.
Durch den Einsatz der Pentosen Arabinose und Xylose als alternative Kohlenstoffquellen wurde der Carotinoidgehalt der Phytoen- und Zeaxanthin-Hochproduzenten um 70 bzw. 92 % im Vergleich zur Glucose-Kultivierung gesteigert, wobei die Gründe für diesen Effekt in einer stärkeren Kohlenstoffverwertung und der Hemmwirkung von Glucose vermutet wurden. Aus verschiedenen pflanzlichen Abfallstoffen kann Xylose durch Hydrolyse freigesetzt werden, deren Nutzung zum Aufbau einer nachhaltigen und kostengünstigen biotechnologischen Carotinoidproduktion beitragen kann.
Darüber hinaus wurden multioxigenierte Zeaxanthinderivate, von denen eine positive Wirkung auf die menschliche Gesundheit vermutet wird, durch kombinatorische Biosynthese erhalten. Durch die schrittweise Integration der Gene crtZoXd, crtG (ß-2,2-Hydroxylase) und bkt (ß-4,4-Ketolase) in eine ß-Carotinmutante wurde die Biosynthese von Zeaxanthin, Nostoxanthin und schließlich von 4-Keto-Nostoxanthin und 4,4-Diketo-Nostoxanthin erreicht. Anschließend erfolgte die chemische Reduktion zu den neuartigen Carotinoiden 4-Hydroxy-Nostoxanthin und 4,4-Dihydroxy-Nostoxanthin und der zweifelsfreie Nachweis aller vier Carotinoide anhand der mittels Massenspektrometrie bestimmten Molekülmassen und Fragmentierungsmuster.
The objectives of this thesis were to understand how distinct classes of cell types interact to shape oscillatory activity in cortical circuits of the turtle. We chose the turtle cortex as a model system for cortical computations for two reasons. One is that the phylogenetic position of turtles makes their cortex functionally and anatomically particularly interesting. The second is that reptilian brains present several unique experimental advantages. Turtles have a three-layered cortex that forms the dorsalmost part of their pallium and receives direct input from visual thalamus. Thus turtle cortex, while sharing several features with mammalian cortices, constitutes a simpler system for studying cortical computations and dynamics. Freshwater turtles are semiaquatic species, that dive for hours and hibernate for months without breathing. Their brains are adapted to these behaviors so that they can operate under severe anoxia. This property allows for ex vivo wholebrain and whole-cortex (”cortical slab”) preparations in vitro, enabling the use of many sophisticated techniques for monitoring activity in parallel.
I thus set out to utilize the advantages of our model system, by using optogenetic methods to reliably evoke oscillations in an ex vivo whole-cortex preparation while observing activity in parallel with planar multi-electrode arrays (MEA), linear silicon depth-electrodes and patch-clamp recording techniques. This required several technical aspects to be solved. Prior work in turtle cortex (Prechtl, 1994; Prechtl et al., 1997; Senseman and Robbins, 2002) indicated that visual stimuli evoke complex activity patterns (e. g. wave patterns) in dorsal cortex. The goal was to examine these dynamics in detail and to provide mechanistic explanations for them whenever possible. The recent advent of optogenetics, the development of microelectrode arrays, and the possibility to combine these techniques with classical electrophysiological approaches on a resistant, accessible and stable preparation led me to explore a number of technical avenues.
First I had to establish gene delivery methods in reptiles. I settled on recombinant viruses, and show results from several serotypes of adeno-associated virus (AAV), i lentivirus and rabies virus. I report successful gene expression of genes of interest with several subtypes of AAV, including the commonly used AAV2/1 and AAV2/5 serotypes. Second I had to find promoters enabling global and cell-type specific gene expression in reptiles. Ubiquitous high-yield promoters such as CAG/CB7 or CMV drive high levels of expression in turtles; cell-type specific promoters such as hSyn (expression limited to neurons) and CaMKIIa (expression limited exclusively o mostly to excitatory neurons) appear similarly biased in turtles. Other cell-type specific promoters reported in the literature (fNPY, fPV, fSST) failed to express in turtles.
A second major aspect of my work focused on electrophysiological recordings using microelectrode arrays and the interpretation of extracellular signals recorded from cortex in ex vivo preparations. We observed that spike signals produced by pyramidal and inhibitory neurons were very often followed by a slower potential. We identified these slower potentials as reflections of synaptic currents, and thus of the axonal projections of the neurons, at least within the deep layers of cortex. This also resulted in a means to classify neurons as excitatory or inhibitory with much higher reliability than classical methods (e. g. spike width). The final aspect of my work concerns the use of optogenetics to dissect the mechanisms of cortical oscillations and wave propagation. I show that oscillations can be induced by light in turtle cortex after transfection with AAV2/1 carrying the gene for channelrhodopsin 2 (ChR2). By using the CaMKIIa promoter, ChR2 induced currents are limited to LII/III excitatory cells; we can therefore control excitatory drive to cortical networks. If this drive is strong enough, layer III inhibitory interneurons are recruited and fire in a concerted fashion, silencing the excitatory population. The visually evoked 20 Hz oscillations observed in chronically recorded animals (Schneider, 2015) or in anaesthetized animals (Fournier et al., in press) thus appear to result from a feedback loop between E and I cells within layers II & III. Details of these interactions are being investigated but - layer I interneurons, by contrast, do not seem to be involved. By pulsing light I could control the frequency of the oscillations within a range of several Hz around the natural oscillation frequency. Above this range, cortex could only follow the stimulus at a fraction (1/2, 1/3,...) of the light pulse frequency. Using a digital micromirror device, I limited activation of the cortical networks spatially, enabling the study of wave propagation in this system.
Reptilian cortex offers a relatively simple model system for a reductionist and comparative strategy on understanding cortical computations and dynamics. Turtle dorsal cortex could thus give fundamental insights to the primordial organization tional, computational and functional principles of cortical networks. These insights are relevant to our understanding of mammalian brains and may prove valuable to decipher fundamental questions of modern neuroscience.
Inhibition of midbrain dopamine (DA) neurons codes for negative reward prediction errors, and causally affects conditioning learning. DA neurons located in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) display two-fold longer rebound delays from hyperpolarizing inhibition in comparison to those in the substantia nigra (SN). This difference has been linked to the slow inactivation of Kv4.3-mediated A-type currents (IA). One known suppressor of Kv4.3 inactivation is a splice variant of potassium channel interacting protein 4 (KChIP4), KChIP4a, which has a unique potassium channel inactivation suppressor domain (KISD) that is coded within exon 3 of the KChIP4 gene. Previous ex vivo experiments from our lab showed that the constitutive knockout of KChIP4 (KChIP4 KO) removes the slow inactivation of IA in VTA DA neurons, with marginal effects on SN DA neurons. KChIP4 KO also increased firing pauses in response to phasic hyperpolarization in these neurons. Here I show, using extracellular recordings combined with juxtacellular labeling in anesthetized mice, that KChIP4 KO also selectively changes the number and duration spontaneous firing pauses by VTA DA neurons in vivo. Pauses were quantified with two different statistical methods, including one developed in house. No other firing parameter was affected, including mean frequency and bursting, and the activity of SN DA neurons was untouched, suggesting that KChIP4 gene products have a highly specific effect on VTA DA neuron responses to inhibitory input.
Following up on this result, I developed a new mouse line (KChIP4 Ex3d) where the KISD-coding exon 3 of KChIP4 is selectively excised by cre-recombinase expressed under the dopamine transporter (DAT) promoter, therefore disrupting the expression of KChIP4a only in midbrain DA neurons. I show that these mice have a highly selective behavioral phenotype, displaying a drastic acceleration in extinction learning, but no changes in acquisition learning, in comparison to control littermates. Computational fitting of the behavioral data with a modified Rescorla-Wagner model confirmed that this phenotype is congruent with a selective increase in learning from negative prediction errors. KChIP4 Ex3d also had normal open field exploration, novel object preference, hole board exploration and spontaneous alternation in a plus maze, indicating that exploratory drive, responses to novelty, anxiety, locomotion and working memory were not affected by the genetic manipulation. Furthermore semi-quantitative IHC revealed that KChIP4 Ex3d mice have increased Kv4.3 expression in TH+ neurons, suggesting that the absence of KChIP4a increases the binding of other KChIP variants, which known to increase surface expression of Kv4 channels.
Furthermore, in the course of my experimental study I identified that the most used mouse line where cre-recombinase is expressed under the DAT promoter (DAT-cre KI) has a different behavioral phenotype during conditioning in relation to WT littermate controls. These animals displayed increased responding during the initial trials of acquisition and delayed response latency extinction, consistent with an increase in motivation, which is in line with a decrease in DAT function.
I propose a working model where the disruption of KChIP4a expression in DA neurons leads to an increase in binding of other KChIP variants to Kv4.3 subunits, promoting their increased surface expression and increasing IA current density; this then increases firing pauses in response to synaptic inhibition, which in behaving animals translates to an increase in negative prediction error-based learning.
Savannas provide essential ecosystem services for human well-being in West Africa. Thus, ecosystem change not only directly affects biodiversity but also human livelihoods. Human land use considerably shaped these savanna ecosystems for millennia, particularly agriculture, livestock grazing, logging and the collection of non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs are wild plant products and comprise all organic matter from herbaceous plants, shrubs, and trees (excluding timber). Current increasing land use pressure through fast demographic changes is widely esteemed as a severe threat for savanna biodiversity and the socio-economy of rural communities. In consideration of the pivotal role of NTFP species for biodiversity and livelihoods, it is important to evaluate the effect of increasing land use change on savanna vegetation and on its provisioning service for human well-being. Thus, the major aim of this thesis is to investigate the impacts of land use intensification on vegetation composition, diversity and function and its consequences for provisioning ecosystem services (NTFPs) and human well-being in a West African savanna.
The research for this study was conducted in the North Sudanian vegetation zone of south-eastern Burkina Faso, where population growth exceeds the nationwide trend. Generally, Burkina Faso belongs to the worldwide poorest countries, where nearly one quarter of the population suffers from malnutrition (FAO 2014). The integration of NTFPs and particularly wild food species into rural household economies is, thus, an important measure in the national combat against poverty and food insecurity (FAO 2014). Against this background, I focus on vegetation changes, the economic importance of NTFPs as well as the decrease and substitution of wild food species in this study.
Vegetation resurveys of different vegetation types since the early 1990s showed that land use change led to more pronounced changes in the herbaceous than in the woody vegetation layer. Most woody vegetation types stayed stable in species composition and richness, even though some highly useful tree species (Vitellaria paradoxa, Parkia biglobosa) declined in some woody vegetation types. In contrast, in most herbaceous vegetation types species richness increased and species composition considerably changed. This change might be explained by a general ruderalisation process through a pronounced increase of wide-ranging herbaceous species. However, in spite of a general species increase in the herbaceous layer, a decrease of preferred herbaceous fodder species was found. Thus, the decline of useful species in both layers is alarming. Herbaceous vegetation types also showed more pronounced changes in plant functional trait characteristics in comparison to woody vegetation types. However, an increase of smaller plant species and species with a high diaspore terminal velocity (VTerm) was found in both vegetation layers. Since these two trait responses are generally related to grazing and browsing, the strong increase of livestock herds is likely to be responsible for the detected vegetation changes.
In addition to the vegetation study, interviews showed that all useful food species were widely considered to decline. The two economically most important tree species, the shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa) and the locust bean tree (Parkia biglobosa) that contribute with 70% to wild food income, were considered among the most declining species of all cited wild food species. On this matter, local perceptions of species decline and results from field observations are in accordance. However, a wide range of cited substitutes indicated a great knowledge on alternative plant species in the area. Most wild food species are, however, substituted by other highly valued wild food species. Although our results suggest that rural communities are able to cope with the decrease or absence of wild food species, growing decline of one species would concurrently increase the pressure on other native food species. Therefore, the need to counteract the decrease of highly useful wild food species should be of high priority in management measures. In general, I showed that NTFPs are an essential component in rural households, since it contributed with 45 % to total household income. Significant differences in NTFP dependency between the two investigated villages and across the three main ethnic groups were detected, reflecting different traditional uses and harvesting practices. In general, it was shown that poorer households depend more on NTFP income than wealthier households. Against the background of this study, management strategies for agroforestry systems and poverty alleviation should consider local differences, and ethnicity-dependent NTFP-use patterns.
Overall, the combination of field studies on temporal and functional vegetation change with socio-economic and ethno-botanic interviews increases the knowledge on qualitative and quantitative vegetation changes and on the consequences for rural populations. This thesis gives a thorough insight into decreasing trends of economically valued plant species and thus gives evidence on the consequences of vegetation changes for ecosystem services of West African savanna ecosystems. Further, different NTFP-dependencies and use preferences according to socio-economic and cultural variables, such as ethnicity, present a valuable basis for specific decision-making and should be considered in management plans.
Tissue size regulation is critical for the normal functioning of the organ as well as to prevent unwanted pathogenesis such as cancer. The Hippo signaling pathway is well known for its robust regulation of tissue growth by the negative regulation of its nuclear effectors YAP1 and WWTR1. In this study, I have described the role of Yap1/Wwtr1 in zebrafish development, with a primary emphasis on the cardiovascular system.
I have generated zebrafish yap1 and wwtr1 mutants by CRISPR/CAS9. The mutant alleles are likely to be nonfunctional due to a premature stop codon and they show evidence of nonsense-mediated decay. Given that Yap1 and Wwtr1 are closely related proteins and have overlapping functions, I am given the opportunity to perform combinatorial analysis of the mutations on zebrafish development. Together with molecular probing tools, high-throughput sequencing and high-resolution imaging, I showed that
1. Double yap1;wwtr1 mutants exhibit severe posterior elongation phenotype, but somitogenesis appears to proceed as usual.
2. Yap1 and Wwtr1 may play an important role in PCV development and secondary angiogenic sprouting. However, key experiments will be needed to elucidate the direct role of Yap1 and Wwtr1 on these processes.
3. wwtr1-/- larvae hearts have a reduction in trabeculation, but in mosaic WT hearts, mutant cardiomyocytes prefer to populate the trabecular layer. My studies revealed that the mutant compact wall could not support trabeculation, which explains the hypotrabeculation phenotype of wwtr1-/- hearts. Additionally, Wwtr1 is required for myocardial Notch activity and can inhibit compact wall cardiomyocytes from entering the trabecular layer.
In summary, the Hippo signaling pathway, through Yap1/Wwtr1 has important regulatory functions in growth control. My work has revealed a surprising role for Yap1/Wwtr1 in tissue morphogenesis such as posterior tail morphogenesis and specific developmental processes of the cardiovascular system. It will be of interest to elucidate the regulation of Yap1/Wwtr1 in individual cells that translates into the complex cellular behaviors that drives morphogenesis.
Glucose homeostasis is tightly regulated by insulin production from ß-cells and glucagon production from α-cells. Changes in the balance of these hormones lead to Diabetes Mellitus (DM), which is foreseen to be the 7th leading cause of death by 2030, warranting a high demand to identify new therapeutics. DM is characterized by a reduction in ß-cell mass and reduced insulin production from ß-cells. α-cell development and fate mainly depend on the activity of the homeodomain-containing transcription factor Aristaless related homeobox (Arx). Conditional loss- of- function of Arx in α-cells leads to their conversion into functional insulin-producing ß-cells and thus an expansion of ß-cell mass. Therefore, inhibition of Arx is an interesting target for the expansion of ß-cells. The zebrafish model provides a fast, cost-effective and reliable translational platform for drug discovery in an in vivo setting. Here, we screened ~6217 small molecules on a transgenic zebrafish line (TgBAC(arxa:Luc2)) in which the arx promoter drives the expression of the luciferase gene which allows a sensitive and quantitative readout of promoter activity. Small molecule screening allowed us to identify 36 candidate repressors of arxa promoter activity. Furthermore, we started to validate these candidates in other assays. Preliminary results showed that DMAT (a potent CK2 inhibitor) and CNS-1102 (NMDA receptor inhibitor) increase functional ß-cell regeneration. By lineage tracing α-cells during ß-cell regeneration, we could show that both DMAT and CNS-1102 promote α- to ß-cell transdifferentiation. Here, we propose that Casein kinase II and NMDA receptor as potential molecular targets that could be exploited for the treatment of diabetes by generating functional beta-cells from the non-beta-cell progenitor, particularly alpha-cells in situ.
Ziel dieser Dissertation war es, die biologische Rolle der Autophagie für die Entwicklung, Alterung und mitochondriale Qualitätskontrolle in dem Ascomyceten Podospora anserina zu untersuchen. Folgende Ergebnisse wurden dabei erzielt:
1. Der Verlust einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie ist in P. anserina mit einem Defekt der Sporen-Entwicklung bzw. -Keimung charakterisiert.
2. Es konnten drei Methoden zur Untersuchung der Autophagie in P. anserina etabliert werden: 1) Die Verwendung eines Gfp::PaAtg8-Stamms ermöglicht die Fluoreszenzmikroskopische Bestimmung der Autophagosomen-Anzahl; 2) Die phänotypische Charakterisierung des PaAtg1-Deletionsstamms unter verschiedenen Stressbedingungen (z. B. Stickstoffmangel, Rapamycin) liefert Hinweise auf eine mögliche Autophagie-abhängige Stressadaption; 3) Die Verwendung des „GFPcleavage assays“ ermöglicht einen quantitativen Nachweis genereller und selektiver Autophagie (hier: Mitophagie).
3. In zwei voneinander unabhängigen Experimenten wurde ein altersabhängiger Anstieg der Autophagie für P. anserina demonstriert: Das Autophagie-Niveau nimmt in gealterten P. anserina-Kulturen zu. Gleichzeitig resultiert der Verlust der Autophagie in ∆PaAtg1 in eine reduzierte Lebensspanne. Unter Stressbedingungen (hier: Stickstoffmangel) wird dieser positive Einfluss der Autophagie auf die Lebensspanne im Wildtyp sogar noch verstärkt.
4. Der unerwartet „gesunde“ Phänotyp der PaSod3-Deletionsmutante ist abhängig von einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie. Der Mitophagie wurde eine besondere Rolle als Kompensationsmechanismus für den Verlust von PaSOD3 zugeteilt, da das Mitophagie-Niveau in dieser Mutante erhöht ist. Am Beispiel dieser Mutante, für die ein erhöhter Superoxid-Ausstoß nachgewiesen wurde, konnte eine Dosis-abhängige Wirkung von ROS in P. anserina identifiziert werden. Eine geringe zelluläre ROSMenge verursacht eine mitohormetische Reaktion, die eine Induktion der Mitophagie zur Folge hat und sich positiv auf den Organismus auswirkt. Übersteigt die zelluläre ROS-Dosis einen kritischen Punkt, kommt es zur Induktion des autophagischen Zelltods und damit zum vorzeitigen Tod des Individuums.
5. Der Verlust der PaCLPXP-Protease führt zu Beeinträchtigungen in der Funktion und Zusammensetzung der mitochondrialen Atmungskette. Dieses Defizit im Energiemetabolismus wird über eine Induktion der AOX, vor allem aber über eine ZUSAMMENFASSUNG 127 gesteigerte Autophagie kompensiert. Die deutlich verlängerte Lebensspanne der verschiedenen PaClpXP-Deletionsmutanten (∆PaClpX, ∆PaClpP und ∆PaClpXP) ist abhängig von einer funktionalen Autophagie-Maschinerie. Interessanterweise konnte keine kompensatorische Funktion der Autophagie oder Mitophagie für den Verlust der mitochondrialen i-AAA-Protease PaIAP in P. anserina nachgewiesen werden.
Autophagie/Mitophagie stellt einen übergeordneten Qualitätskontrollmechanismus in P. anserina dar, der den Organismus sehr effektiv vor zellulären Schäden und Dysfunktionen bewahrt und einen positiven Einfluss auf die Alterung, Entwicklung und Energieversorgung einnimmt.
Die Verarbeitung während des Hörprozesses von Säugetieren verläuft von der Kochlea mit den inneren und äußeren Haarsinneszellen (äHZ) über afferente Nervenbahnen bis zum auditorischen Kortex (AK). Die daran beteiligten Schaltstationen und deren Funktion sind überwiegend aufgeklärt. Die Hörbahn ist zudem in besonderer Weise durch efferente Rückkopplungen gekennzeichnet, die interne Modulationen sowie sekundäre Reaktionen auf den Reiz ermöglichen. Anatomisch betrachtet verlaufen efferente Projektionen vom AK zu sämtlichen am Hörprozess beteiligten Kerngebieten. Vom Olivenkomplex erfolgt über mediale und laterale Fasern eine Innervation der äHZ bzw. des Hörnervs. Trotz der gut beschriebenen Anatomie ist die funktionelle Beziehung zwischen dem AK und der Peripherie weitgehend ungeklärt. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wurde der funktionelle Zusammenhang vom AK zu den äHZ in der mongolischen Wüstenrennmaus untersucht. Dafür wurde entweder eine pharmakologische Blockierung der Kortexaktivität durch den Natriumkanalblocker Lidocain erzeugt oder eine Aktivierung der Kortexaktivität durch die Anwendung elektrischer Reize ausgelöst. Der Einfluss der Manipulationen wurde in der Kochlea mittels Messungen von Distorsionsprodukt-otoakustischen Emissionen (DPOAE) erfasst. Diese entstehen durch die nichtlineare Verstärkung leiser Schallsignale durch die äHZ zur Erzielung hoher Sensitivität und Frequenzauflösung. Die DPOAE treten als kubische (z. B. 2f1-f2) und quadratische (z. B. f2-f1) Verzerrungen auf und geben Aufschluss über unterschiedliche Parameter der äHZ-Verstärkungsfunktion.
Die Lidocainversuche wurden entweder kontra- oder ipsilateral zur DPOAE-Messung durchgeführt. In beiden Konstellationen traten nach der Lidocaininjektion Erhöhungen und Verringerungen der DPOAE-Pegel im Vergleich zur Basismessung oder unveränderte DPOAE-Pegel auf. Im Mittel lagen die Pegeländerungen bei ca. 11 dB, in Einzelfällen betrugen sie bis zu 44,8 dB. In den Gesamtdaten waren die Effekte nach kontralateraler Injektion oft signifikant größer als nach ipsilateraler Injektion. Ebenso waren die Effekte in der 2f1-f2 Emission meist signifikant größer als in der f2-f1 Emission. Zudem wurde beobachtet, dass signifikant größere Effekte bei einer Stimulation mit Pegeln von 60/50 dB SPL im Vergleich zu 40/30 dB SPL erreicht wurden. Grundsätzlich trat in allen Datensätzen eine Reversibilität der DPOAE-Pegel mit zunehmender Versuchsdauer auf. Die Effekte waren direkt nach der Injektion am größten und erreichten je nach Stimuluspegel und Emissionstyp nach 28-100 min die Basispegel. In keinem der Datensätze lag eine Abhängigkeit der im Kortex gereizten charakteristischen Frequenz (CF) zum betroffenen Frequenzbereich in der Kochlea vor. Die Effekte waren über den gesamten gemessenen Frequenzbereich von 1-40 kHz nachweisbar. Allerdings waren die Frequenzbereiche von 1-10 kHz und 30,5-40 kHz besonders stark von der Lidocaininjektion betroffen.
Auch nach der elektrischen Reizung wurden die drei oben beschriebenen Effekttypen definiert. Mit 54,6 % war der Prozentsatz unveränderter DPOAE-Pegel allerdings sehr hoch. In den anderen beiden Kategorien konnten zusätzlich Differenzierungen im zeitlichen Verhalten der DPOAE-Pegel vorgenommen werden. In 21,6 % bzw. 16,5 % der Datensätze waren die Verringerungen bzw. Erhöhungen bis zum letzten gemessenen Zeitpunkt nach der elektrischen Reizung irreversibel und nur in jeweils 2,8 % der Datensätze war eine Reversibilität zu verzeichnen. In diesen Fällen war die Effektdauer mit im Mittel 31 bzw. 25 min kürzer als in den Lidocainversuchen. Auch die Effektstärken waren mit maximal 23,9 dB und je nach Effekttyp im Mittel 5,1-13,7 dB geringer als nach der Lidocaininjektion. Die größten Effekte traten in einem mittleren Stimuluspegelbereich von 45-55 dB SPL auf. Wiederum konnte keine Abhängigkeit des betroffenen Frequenzbereichs von der kortikal gereizten CF nachgewiesen werden. In Einzelfällen waren auf DPOAE-Ebene nur die Frequenzen ober- und unterhalb der kortikalen CF beeinflusst, wohingegen bei der CF selbst keine Effekte auftraten.
Durch Kontrollexperimente (Salineinjektion bzw. Einführen der Elektrode ohne elektrische Reizung) konnte nachgewiesen werden, dass die Effekte durch die Manipulation der Kortexaktivität hervorgerufen wurden. Somit liegt eine funktionelle Beziehung zwischen dem AK und der Peripherie vor, die langanhaltende massive Ausmaße annehmen kann. Die Effektrichtung ist vermutlich durch die exzitatorisch oder inhibitorisch wirkenden Neurone vom Colliculus inferior zum Olivenkomplex bedingt. Die größeren Effekte in der kontralateralen Konfiguration lassen sich durch die Diskrepanz in der Anzahl der gekreuzten (2/3) und ungekreuzten (1/3) medialen Efferenzen erklären. Die kubischen Komponenten der äHZ-Verstärkungsfunktion scheinen stärker beeinflusst zu sein als die quadratischen Komponenten, was in größeren Pegeländerungen in der 2f1-f2 Emission resultiert. Die teils großen Effektstärken sowie die nicht vorhandene Frequenzabhängigkeit zwischen AK und Kochlea sind vermutlich auf den großen Kortexbereich zurückzuführen, der von den gewählten Injektionsvolumina bzw. elektrischen Reizstärken betroffen war. Die großen Effekte im mittleren Stimuluspegelbereich lassen sich sowohl mit einer möglichen Schutzfunktion der Efferenzen vor zu lauten Schallereignissen als auch mit einer Verbesserung des Signal-Rausch-Verhältnisses zur erleichterten Detektion akustischer Signale in Einklang bringen. Insgesamt deuten die Ergebnisse darauf hin, dass die Aktivität des AK einen starken Einfluss auf periphere auditorische Mechanismen hat, wodurch die kochleäre Verarbeitung akustischer Signale je nach kortikalem Verarbeitungsstatus massiv modifiziert werden kann.
Der Gyrus dentatus ist eine anatomische Region im Hippocampus und besitzt die einzigartige Fähigkeit auch im adulten Gehirn lebenslang neue Nervenzellen zu generieren. Dieser Prozess wird als adulte Neurogenese bezeichnet, stellt eine besondere Form struktureller Plastizität dar und es wurde gezeigt, dass adult neugebildete Körnerzellen im Gyrus dentatus essentiell am Prozess des hippocampalen Lernens und der Gedächtnisausbildung beteiligt sind. Es wird vermutet, dass neue Körnerzellen aufgrund ihrer charakteristischen Eigenschaften verstärkt auf neue Informationsmuster reagieren können und darauf spezialisiert sind Muster, die eine hohe Ähnlichkeit zueinander haben zu separieren und diese Unterschiede zu kodieren. Obwohl bereits eine Vielzahl von wissenschaftlichen Studien zum Verständnis der Entwicklung und Funktion adult neugebildeter Körnerzellen beitragen konnte, bestehen immer noch Unklarheiten darin, wie sich diese neuen Nervenzellen strukturell entwickeln, wann es zu einer funktionellen Integration kommt und wie diese beiden Prozesse miteinander zusammenhängen. In den vorliegenden Arbeiten wurde die strukturelle Entwicklung und synaptische Integration adult neugebildeter Körnerzellen in das bestehende hippocampale Netzwerk der Ratte und Maus unter in vivo Bedingungen untersucht. Zur Beantwortung dieser Fragen wurden Methoden aus der Anatomie, Histologie und in vivo Elektrophysiologie kombiniert. Der Nachweis neuer Körnerzellen erfolgte entweder durch immunhistologische Färbungen gegen spezifische Marker für unreife und reife Körnerzellen, Markierungen mit Bromdesoxyuridin oder retro- bzw. adenovirale intrazerebrale Injektionen und Expression von GFP. Es wurde eine in vivo Stimulation des Tractus perforans in der anästhesierten Ratte zur Langzeitpotenzierung der Körnerzellsynapsen und anschließend eine immunhistologische Analyse der Expression von synaptischen Aktivitäts- und Plastizitätsmarkern in neugebildeten und reifen Körnerzellen nach der Stimulation durchgeführt. Zusätzlich wurden detaillierte drei-dimensionale Rekonstruktion dendritischer Bäume erstellt und dendritische Dornenfortsätze an retroviral markierten Zellen analysiert.
Die vorliegenden Daten belegen den generellen Verlauf der Entwicklung neugeborener Körnerzellen in zwei unterschiedliche Phasen: eine frühe dendritische Reifung und eine späte funktionelle und synaptische Integration. Neugeborene Körnerzellen zeigten ein rasches dendritisches Auswachsen, dass innerhalb der ersten drei bis vier Wochen abgeschlossen war. Während dieses Wachstumsprozesses passieren Dendriten nacheinander die Körnerzellschicht und anschließend die innere, mittlere und äußere Molekularschicht. Dadurch sind sie innerhalb ihrer morphologischen Entwicklungsphasen anatomisch auf spezifische präsynaptische Partner limitiert. In der wissenschaftlichen Literatur wird eine transiente kritische Phase beschrieben, in der neugeborene Körnerzellen eine starke Plastizität und sensitivere synaptische Erregbarkeit aufweisen. Obwohl die vorliegenden Resultate keine direkten Hinweise auf eine stärkere bzw. sensitivere Plastizität neugeborener Körnerzellen liefern, konnte eine Phase zwischen vier und fünf Wochen identifiziert werden, in der neue Körnerzellen einen sprunghaften Anstieg in ihrer Fähigkeit zur Expression synaptischer Aktivitätsmarker (z.B. Arc und c-fos) und Ausbildung struktureller Plastizität (Dendriten und Dornenfortsätze) zeigten. Die präsentierten Resultate machen deutlich, dass Dornenfortsätze neuer Körnerzellen nach elf Wochen eine vergleichbare Dichte, Größenverteilung und Plastizität aufzeigen, die vergleichbar mit denen vorhandener Körnerzellen sind. Die Fähigkeit zur dendritischen Plastizität nach synaptischer Aktivierung zeigten jedoch nur neugeborene Körnerzellen zwischen der vierten und fünften Woche. Diese Ergebnisse implizieren, dass die Integration neugebildeter Körnerzellen kontinuierlich verläuft und obwohl die vorliegenden Daten die Existenz einer dendritischen Plastizität und einen sprunghaften Anstieg synaptischer Plastizität in der vierten und fünften Woche belegen, wurden keine weiteren Hinweise auf eine transiente kritische Phase gefunden. Des Weiteren zeigten dendritische Bäume von gereiften adult neugeborenen und reifen Körnerzellen Unterschiede, die daraufhin deuten, dass neue Körnerzellen eine eigene Subpopulation darstellen.
Heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) play essential role in heat stress response and thermotolerance by controlling the transcriptional activation of heat stress response (HSR) genes including molecular chaperones. Plant Hsf families show a striking multiplicity, with more than 20 members in the many plant species. Among Hsfs, HsfA1s act as the master regulators of heat stress (HS) response and HsfA2 becomes one of the most abundant Hsfs during HS. Using transgenic plans with suppressed expression of HsfA2 we have shown that this Hsf is involved in acquired thermotolerance of S. lycopersicum cv Moneymaker as HsfA2 is required for high expression and maintenance of increased levels of Hsps during repeated cycles of HS treatment.
Interestingly, HsfA2 undergoes temperature-dependent alternative splicing (AS) which results in the generation of seven transcript variants. Three of these transcripts (HsfA2-Iα-γ), generated due to alternative splicing of a second, newly identified intron encode for the full length protein involved in acquired thermotolerance. Another 3 transcripts (HsfA2-IIIα-γ) are generated due to alternative splicing in intron 1, leading in all cases to a premature termination codon and targeting of these transcripts for degradation via the non-sense mRNA decay mechanism (NMD).
Interestingly, excision of intron 2, results into the generation of a second previously unreported protein isoform, annotated as HsfA2-II. HsfA2-II shows similar transcriptional activity to the full-length protein HsfA2-I in the presence of HsfA1a but lacks the nuclear export signal (NES) required for nucleocytoplasmic shuttling which allows efficient nuclear retention and stimulation of transcription of HS-induced genes. Furthermore, stability assays showed that HsfA2-II exhibits lower protein stability compared to HsfA2-I.
The presence of a second intron and the generation of a second protein isoform we identified in other Solanaceae species as well. Remarkably, we observed major differences in the splicing efficiency of HsfA2 intron 2 among different tomato species. Several wild tomato accessions exhibit higher splicing efficiency that favors the generation of HsfA2-II, while in these species the splice variant HsfA2-Iγ is absent. This natural variation in splicing efficiency specifically occurring at temperatures around 37.5oC is associated with the presence of 3 intronic polymorphisms. In the case of wild species these polymorphisms seemingly restrict the binding of RS2Z36, identified as a putative splicing silencer for HsfA2 intron 2.
Tomato accessions with the polymorphic “wild” HsfA2 show enhanced thermotolerance against a direct severe heat stress incident due to the stronger increase of Hsps and other stress induced genes. Introgression of the “wild” S. pennellii HsfA2 locus into the cultivar M82, resulted in enhanced seedling thermotolerance highlighting the potential use of the polymorphic HsfA2 for breeding.
We conclude that alterations in the splicing efficiency of HsfA2 have contributed to the adaption of tomato species to different environments and these differences might be directly related to natural variation in their thermotolerance.
Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide. Aging is among the greatest risk factors for cardiovascular disease. Cardiovascular disease comprises several diseases, for example myocardial infarction, elevated blood pressure and stroke. Many processes are known to promote or worsen cardiovascular disease and in the present study, cellular senescence and inflammatory activation were of special interest, as they have a strong association to aging and can be seen as hallmarks of cellular aging.
Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) are noncoding RNAs with a length of more than 200 nucleotides. In recent years, numerous regulatory functions were shown for these transcripts and lncRNAs were shown to directly interact with DNA, RNA and proteins. The long noncoding RNA H19 was among the first described noncoding RNAs and was initially shown to act as a tumor suppressor. More recently, several studies showed oncogenic roles for H19. In regards to the cardiovascular system, H19 was not analyzed before.
We show that H19 is the most profoundly downregulated lncRNA in endothelial cells of aged mice compared to young littermates. Microarray analysis of human primary endothelial cells upon pharmacological H19 depletion revealed an involvement of H19 in cell cycle regulation. Loss of H19 in human endothelial cells in vitro led to reduced proliferation and to increased senescence. H19 depletion was shown to counteract proliferation before, but none of the described mechanisms applied to endothelial cells. We show that the reduction in proliferative capacity and the pro-senescent function of H19 is most probably mediated by an upregulation of p16ink4A and p21 upon H19 depletion.
When we compared the angiogenic capacity of aortic endothelial cells from young and aged mice in an aortic ring assay, rings from aged mice showed a reduced cumulative sprout length. Interestingly, pharmacological inhibition of H19 in aortic rings of young animals, where H19 is highly expressed, was sufficient to reduce the cumulative sprout length to levels we observed from aged animals. Furthermore, overexpression of human H19 in aortic rings of aged mice, where H19 is poorly expressed, rescued the impaired angiogenic capacity of aged endothelial cells.
We generated inducible endothelial-specific H19 knockout mice (H19iEC-KO) and subjected these animals to hind limb ischemia surgery followed by perfusion analysis in the hind limbs by laser-doppler velocimetry and histological analysis. Perfusion in the operated hind limb was increased in H19iEC-KO compared to Ctrl littermates, which was in contrast to a reduction in capillary density in the operated hind limbs of H19iEC-KO animals compared to Ctrl littermates and to our previous results. Analysis of arteriogenesis revealed an increase in collateral growth upon EC-specific H19 depletion in the ischemic hind limbs, which explains the increase in perfusion despite the reduction in capillary density. Further characterization of the animals revealed an increase in leukocyte infiltration into the tissue in the ischemic hind limbs upon endothelial-specific H19 depletion, indicating a potential role of H19 in inflammatory tissue activation.
Reanalysis of the microarray data from human primary endothelial cells upon H19 depletion revealed an association of H19 with inflammatory signaling and more specifically with IL-6/JAK2/STAT3 signaling. Analysis of cell surface adhesion molecule expression revealed an upregulation of ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 on mRNA level and an increase of the abundance of the two proteins on the cell surface of human primary endothelial cells. Consequently, adhesion of isolated human monocytes to human primary endothelial cells was increased upon H19 depletion in vitro. Interestingly, TNF-α mediated inflammatory activation of primary human endothelial cells repressed H19 expression. H19 did not function via previously described mechanisms. We excluded a competitive endogenous RNA (ceRNA) function for H19 in endothelial cells and showed that miR-675, which is processed from H19, does not play a role in the endothelium. Furthermore, H19 did not regulate previously described genes or pathways.
Analysis of transcription factor activity upon H19 depletion and overexpression revealed a differential activity of STAT3. STAT3 phosphorylation at TYR705 and thus activation was increased upon H19 depletion. Inhibition of STAT3 activation using a small compound inhibitor abolished the effects of H19 depletion on mRNA expression of p21, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1 and on proliferation, indicating that the effects of H19 are at least partially mediated via STAT3. STAT3 was shown to have positive effects on the cardiovascular system before, most likely due to upregulation of VEGF in a STAT3-dependent manner. We were not able to confirm previously described mechanisms for STAT3 in the present study and propose a new mechanism of action for the H19-dependent regulation of STAT3. Taken together, these results identify the long noncoding RNA H19 as a pivotal regulator of endothelial cell function. Figure 38 summarizes the described functions of H19 in endothelial cells.
Deciphering the ecological functions of fungal root endophytes based on their natural occurrence
(2017)
Plants are colonized by a large diversity of fungi, some residing on the surface and others penetrating the plant tissues, the latter referred to as fungal endophytes (endon Gr., within; phyton, plant; de Bary 1879). Despite the saprotrophic potential of fungal endophytes, they are not found to cause visible disease symptoms to the host. Plants are colonized simultaneously by various fungal species, which form rich and diverse endophytic assemblages. Although it is hypothesized that fungal endophytes contribute to the fitness of their hosts and to the functioning of ecosystems, the ecological function of fungal endophytic assemblages remains cryptic. The aims of this doctoral thesis are to gain insight to the ecological functions of root fungal endophytes, by deciphering their roles in ecosystems based on their natural occurrence and the structure of their assemblages. The thesis focuses on studying the diversity and structure of the endophytic mycobiome within roots of two annual and widespread plant hosts Microthlapsi perfoliatum and M. erraticum (Brassicaceae) in several locations across northern Mediterranean and central Europe. The thesis is composed by six Chapters, with a primary focus on Chapter 1, 2 and 3.
Chapter 1 (Glynou et al., 2016) aimed at characterizing the diversity of fungal endophytes in roots at a continental scale and at assessing the factors affecting the structure of endophytic assemblages with the use of cultivation-based methods. For that, root samples were collected from 52 plant populations, along with a collection of soil, bioclimatic, geographic and host data. Cultivation of surface-sterilized root samples on culture media and isolation of fungal colonies in pure culture generated 1,998 fungal colonies. Grouping of sequences into Operational Taxonomic Units (OTUs), based on the 97% similarity of the isolates’ rDNA Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequence, generated in total 296 OTUs, representing taxa mostly within the phylum Ascomycota with a minor representation of Basidiomycota. Endophytic assemblages were mostly correlated with variation in bioclimatic conditions. Interestingly, despite the large diversity revealed, the assemblages were dominated by only six OTUs related to the orders Hypocreales, Pleosporales and Helotiales, which had a widespread distribution across populations but with some following patterns of ecological preferences.
Chapter 2 aimed at characterizing the uncultivable fraction of the root fungal endophytic diversity, which was not possible to capture in Chapter 1. High-throughput sequencing via the
Illumina Miseq platform was implemented in 43 of the 52 original populations and mostly in the same root samples. In comparison with the cultivation-based approach, the HTS managed to cover the overall diversity within samples. It revealed a large non-cultivated endophytic diversity but the same cultivable fungi dominated assemblages. Moreover, the endophytic diversity was grouped mostly within fungal orders with demonstrated ability to grow in culture and taxonomically related groups were found to have divergent ecological preferences.
The genetic identity of the most abundant OTUs was further investigated in Chapter 3 (Glynou et al., 2017), aiming to unravel genotypic variability, which was possibly overlooked due to the use of lTS, as a universal genetic marker, and could explain their high abundance and widespread distribution. Multi-locus gene sequencing and AFLP profiling for the five most abundant OTUs suggested a low within-OTU genetic variability and show that these fungi have ubiquitous distribution and are not limited by environmental conditions within the ecological ranges of the study. A selection of endophytes frequently isolated in Chapter 1 was functionally characterized in Chapter 4 (Kia et al., 2017) based on the isolates’ traits and interactions with plants. In Chapter 5 (Cheikh-Ali et al., 2015) fungal cultures of Exophiala sp. with differential colony structure where investigated for their production of secondary metabolites. Moreover, Chapter 6 (Maciá-Vicente et al., 2016) comprises the description of the new species Exophiala radicis based on morphological and molecular characteristics.
Compilation of all results shows that the fungal endophytic diversity in roots of Microthlaspi spp. is high but few widespread OTUs dominate the assemblages, and have unlimited dispersal ability. These fungi seem also to have a wide niche breadth and are not affected by environmental filtering. The findings indicate that the local environment but also processes of competitive exclusion determine the structure of endophytic assemblages. In addition, the fungal endophytes associated with Microthlapsi spp. likely have saprotrophic activity however the interactions with plants are likely context-dependent. Further research is needed to assess the biotic interactions among endophytes and their effect on the structure of fungal endophytic assemblages. Ultimately, the findings of this thesis are useful to shed light on the processes underlying the structure of endophytic assemblages. They also upraise the need to describe diversity by combining genetic, metabolic and physiological data, in order to disentangle the elusive ecological roles of the endophytic mycobiome.
The cardiovascular system (CVS) consists of heart and blood vessels, forming a close circulatory loop. All tissues depend on the nutrients and molecular oxygen (O2) delivered by the blood. Therefore, it is not surprising that the CVS is one of the first working systems and the heart is the first functional organ in the forming embryo (Baldwin 1996). The building blocks of blood vessels are endothelial cells (ECs), which form the endothelium, a specialized epithelium that defines the luminal surface of the vessels (Pugsley and Tabrizchi 2000). The process of blood vessel development comprises several steps. The first events occurring are the formation of new vessels de novo to constitute the primary vascular loop known as vasculogenesis. During vasculogenesis the vascular precursors, known as angioblasts, migrate and coalesce to form the axial vessels. Subsequently, the main vessels undergo a specification step where they acquire either arterial or venous identity. As the embryo increases in size, the main vascular loop needs to increase in complexity. In order to reach all the different parts of the developing organs, new blood vessels are formed from pre-existing ones, a phenomenon known as angiogenesis (Gore et al. 2012).
Mature blood cells have a short lifespan. Therefore, hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) are required throughout lifetime to constantly form new blood cells in a process called hematopoiesis. Interestingly, endothelial and immune cells development have been shown to converge at different points during their development, one of which is developmental hematopoiesis. During embryogenesis, definitive hematopoiesis occurs in a tissue called hemogenic endothelium (HE), a specialized subset of ECs at the ventral wall of the dorsal aorta (DA). HE acquires hematopoietic potentials and gives rise to HSCs, through a process known as endothelial-to-hematopoietic transition (EHT). During EHT, these specialized ECs extrude from DA and colonize the so-called aorta-gonadmesonephros (AGM) region, forming the native HSCs (Paik and Zon 2010).
As vascular development requires different steps, the molecular pathways involved are many. The Notch signaling pathway has been demonstrated to be one of the main players in vascular development. Among other functions, Notch signaling has been shown to be important during EHT. In the murine model, Runx1, a master regulator of HSC formation, has been shown to be transcriptionally regulated by NOTCH1 through GATA2 activation. This observation was later corroborated by knockdown studies for notch1a and notch1b in zebrafish (Butko, Pouget, and Traver 2016). Another essential pathway for vascular development is the HIF pathway. Hif-1α, Hif-1β and Hif-2α mouse mutants show severe vascular defects that result in early embryonic lethality (Simon and Keith 2008), which hinders a deep analysis of the phenotypes incurring in the mutant embryos. In addition, deletion of Hif-1α specifically in myeloid cells showed abnormalities in the motility, invasiveness, and adhesion of macrophages (Cramer et al. 2003). Intriguingly, Hif-1α deletion in vascular endothelial cadherin-expressing cells led to a significant but partial reduction of HSC number, suggesting that other players may be involved in this pathway (Imanirad et al. 2014).
Zebrafish embryos have been shown to be tolerant to hypoxia at very early stages of development (Padilla and Roth 2001). Also, zebrafish embryos develop externally and this allows to finely manipulate the environment where they grow (Lieschke and Currie 2007). These features make zebrafish an ideal model to investigate how hypoxia and Hif transcription factors affect vertebrate vascular development. In this study, I will examine the impact of hypoxia on zebrafish vascular development. Specifically, I will dissect the role of hif-1α in macrophage-EC interactions during vascular development and repair. Moreover, I show redundant functions for hif-1α and hif-2α in HSC development upstream of Notch signaling.
The adult mammalian heart is unable to regenerate lost myocardial tissue after injury. In contrast, some lower vertebrates including zebrafish are able to undergo complete epimorphic regeneration following multiple types of cardiac injury. During the process of regeneration, spared zebrafish cardiomyocytes in the vicinity of the injured area undergo dedifferentiation and proliferation, thereby giving rise to new cardiomyocytes which replace the injured muscle. Insights into the molecular networks controlling these regenerative processes might help to develop novel therapeutic strategies to restore cardiac performance in humans.
While TGF-β signaling has been implicated in zebrafish cardiac regeneration, the role of individual TGF-β ligands remains to be determined. Here, I report the opposing expression response of two TGF-β ligand genes, mstnb and inhbaa, during zebrafish heart regeneration. Using gain- and loss-of-function approaches, I show that these ligands exert opposite effects on cardiac regeneration and specifically on cardiomyocyte proliferation. Notably, I show that overexpression of mstnb and loss of inhbaa negatively regulate cardiomyocyte proliferation and therefore disturb cardiac regeneration. In contrast, loss of mstnb and activation of inhbaa not only promote physiological cardiomyocyte proliferation but also enhance cardiac regeneration. I also identify Inhbaa as a mitogen which promotes cardiomyocyte proliferation independent of the well-established Nrg-ErbB signaling. Mechanistically, I unraveled that Mstnb and Inhbaa function through alternate Activin type 2 receptor complexes to control the activities of the signal transducers, Smad2 and Smad3, thereby regulating cardiomyocyte proliferation.
Altogether, I reveal novel and unidentified opposite functions of two TGF-β ligands during cardiac development and regeneration, resulting in a pro-mitogenic as well as an anti-mitogenic effect on cardiomyocytes. This study should therefore stimulate further research on targeting specific TGF-β family members to generate novel regenerative therapeutic strategies.
Taxonomy, phylogeny and zoogeography of the hexaploid Torini of the Middle East and North Africa
(2017)
Fishes of the tribe Torini Karaman, 1971 (Teleostei: Cyprinidae) are a diverse group of primary freshwater fishes, distributed in Africa, the Middle East, and Indomalaya. They are an important component of the native freshwater-fish fauna of the Middle East and North Africa, and occur in most large river systems of the Levant, Arabia, Mesopotamia, southern Iran, and Morocco. They belong to the subfamily Cyprininae, are characterised by being tetraploid or hexaploid, having large scales, and a smooth and ossified last unbranched ray in the dorsal fin. As primary freshwater fishes they are not able to tolerate marine conditions and depend on direct freshwater connections for their dispersal. This makes them an ideal model for zoogeographic studies.
Prior to this study, the diversity of the Torini species in the Middle East and North Africa was not well understood. The validity of several genera and species was unclear, and the generic assignment of several species changed frequently.
In this PhD project the taxonomy, phylogeny, and zoogeography of the Torini of the Middle East and North Africa were investigated with morphological, as well as molecular methods. More than 1550 fish specimens were examined morphologically. Some of the specimens, including the types of most nominal species, were already available from museum collections. The remaining specimens were collected during expeditions to Ethiopia, Iran, Jordan, Morocco and Syria. Tissue samples were collected for molecular genetic analyses. The mitochondrial genes for cytochrome b, NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 and the tRNAs for serine and histidine were sequenced from more than 120 specimens, representing 20 species of Torini and two small, diploid African barbs (Cyprinidae, tribe Smiliogastrini). Molecular data were analysed with Bayesian inference and other methods.
The analyses confirmed that the hexaploid Torini of Africa and the Middle East form a monophyletic group. In the Middle East and North Africa the Torini are represented by the genera Arabibarbus, Carasobarbus, Mesopotamichthys, and Pterocapoeta. These genera are each morphologically diagnosable, monophyletic, and genetically distinct. The species 'Labeobarbus' reinii cannot be assigned to any of these genera, because it is morphologically dissimilar and genetically clearly separated from each of them. A generic name for this species is presently not available and until the description of a new genus it is preliminarily assigned to the genus 'Labeobarbus'.
Out of the 28 species-group taxa described from the Middle East and North Africa until now, 15 are valid: Arabibarbus arabicus, A. grypus, A. hadhrami, Carasobarbus apoensis, C. canis, C. chantrei, C. exulatus, C. fritschii, C. harterti, C. kosswigi, C. luteus, C. sublimus, Mesopotamichthys sharpeyi, Pterocapoeta maroccana, and 'Labeobarbus' reinii.
The phylogenetic relationships between the Middle Eastern and North African Torini are well resolved, based on the analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences from nearly all relevant species.
The interspecific and intraspecific morphological and genetic diversity is shaped by the zoogeographic history. Conclusions can be drawn about the events that shaped the evolution of this group. The Torini originated in the Indomalayan biogeographical realm and colonised the Middle East and Africa during the Miocene via the Gomphotherium landbridge. The Indomalayan Torini are tetraploid, whereas those of the Middle East and Africa are hexaploid. Molecular phylogenetic analyses showed that the hexaploid Torini cluster within the tetraploid Torini. This makes the tetraploid Torini a paraphyletic group with respect to the hexaploid Torini. Morocco was colonised in two independent waves. The first came from sub-Saharan Africa and is represented by Pterocapoeta maroccana. The second originated in the Middle East and gave rise to C. fritschii, C. harterti, and probably 'L.' reinii. The Tigris-Euphrates system is the largest freshwater system in the Middle East. Its central position between the Orontes River and Jordan River in the West, the Iranian tributaries to the Persian Gulf in the East, and the Arabian Peninsula in the South made it an important crossroad for the colonisation of the Middle East by Torini and other freshwater biota. During the Miocene the predecessors of the Jordan and Orontes rivers were connected to the Tigris-Euphrates system. The Jordan River was separated from the Euphrates before the Orontes. Arabia was colonised in two waves. The first (A. arabicus, A. hadhrami, C. exulatus) dates to the Pliocene, whereas the second (C. apoensis) ended as recently as the late Pleistocene or early Holocene.
Echolocation allows bats to orientate in darkness without using visual information. Bats emit spatially directed high frequency calls and infer spatial information from echoes coming from call reflections in objects (Simmons 2012; Moss and Surlykke 2001, 2010). The echoes provide momentary snapshots, which have to be integrated to create an acoustic image of the surroundings. The spatial resolution of the computed image increases with the quantity of received echoes. Thus, a high call rate is required for a detailed representation of the surroundings.
One important parameter that the bats extract from the echoes is an object’s distance. The distance is inferred from the echo delay, which represents the duration between call emission and echo arrival (Kössl et al. 2014). The echo delay decreases with decreasing distance and delay-tuned neurons have been characterized in the ascending auditory pathway, which runs from the inferior colliculus (Wenstrup et al. 2012; Macías et al. 2016; Wenstrup and Portfors 2011; Dear and Suga 1995) to the auditory cortex (Hagemann et al. 2010; Suga and O'Neill 1979; O'Neill and Suga 1982).
Electrophysiological studies usually characterize neuronal processing by using artificial and simplified versions of the echolocation signals as stimuli (Hagemann et al. 2010; Hagemann et al. 2011; Hechavarría and Kössl 2014; Hechavarría et al. 2013). The high controllability of artificial stimuli simplifies the inference of the neuronal mechanisms underlying distance processing. But, it remains largely unexplored how the neurons process delay information from echolocation sequences. The main purpose of the thesis is to investigate how natural echolocation sequences are processed in the brain of the bat Carollia perspicillata. Bats actively control the sensory information that it gathers during echolocation. This allows experimenters to easily identify and record the acoustic stimuli that are behaviorally relevant for orientation. For recording echolocation sequences, a bat was placed in the mass of a swinging pendulum (Kobler et al. 1985; Beetz et al. 2016b). During the swing the bat emitted echolocation calls that were reflected in surrounding objects. An ultrasound sensitive microphone traveling with the bat and positioned above the bat’s head recorded the echolocation sequence. The echolocation sequence carried delay information of an approach flight and was used as stimulus for neuronal recordings from the auditory cortex and inferior colliculus of the bats.
Presentation of high stimulus rates to other species, such as rats, guinea pigs, suppresses cortical neuron activity (Wehr and Zador 2005; Creutzfeldt et al. 1980). Therefore, I tested if neurons of bats are suppressed when they are stimulated with high acoustic rates represented in echolocation sequences (sequence situation). Additionally, the bats were stimulated with randomized call echo elements of the sequence and an interstimulus time interval of 400 ms (element situation). To quantify neuronal suppression induced by the sequence, I compared the response pattern to the sequence situation with the concatenated response patterns to the element situation. Surprisingly, although the bats should be adapted for processing high acoustic rates, their cortical neurons are vastly suppressed in the sequence situation (Beetz et al. 2016b). However, instead of being completely suppressed during the sequence situation, the neurons partially recover from suppression at a unit specific call echo element. Multi-electrode recordings from the cortex allow assessment of the representation of echo delays along the cortical surface. At the cortical level, delay-tuned neurons are topographically organized. Cortical suppression improves sharpness of neuronal tuning and decreases the blurriness of the topographic map. With neuronal recordings from the inferior colliculus, I tested whether the echolocation sequence also induced neuronal suppression at subcortical level. The sequence induced suppression was weaker in the inferior colliculus than in the cortex. The collicular response makes the neurons able to track the acoustic events in the echolocation sequence. Collicular suppression mainly improves the signal-to-noise ratio. In conclusion, the results demonstrate that cortical suppression is not necessarily a shortcoming for temporal processing of rapidly occurring stimuli as it has previously been interpreted.
Natural environments are usually composed of multiple objects. Thus, each echolocation call reflects off multiple objects resulting in multiple echoes following the calls. At present, it is largely unexplored how neurons process echolocation sequences containing echo information from more than one object (multi-object sequences). Therefore, I stimulated bats with a multi-object sequence which contained echo information from three objects. The objects were different distances away from each other. I tested the influence of each object on the neuronal tuning by stimulating the bats with different sequences created from filtering object specific echoes from the multi-object sequence. The cortex most reliably processes echo information from the nearest object whereas echo information from distant objects is not processed due to neuronal suppression. Collicular neurons process less selectively echo information from certain objects and respond to each echo.
For proper echolocation, bats have to distinguish between own biosonar signals and the signals coming from conspecifics. This can be quite challenging when many bats echolocate adjacent to each other. In behavioral experiments, the echolocation performance of C. perspicillata was tested in the presence of potentially interfering sounds. In the presence of acoustic noise, the bats increase the sensory acquisition rate which may increase the update rate of sensory processing. Neuronal recordings from the auditory cortex and inferior colliculus could strengthen the hypothesis. Although there were signs of acoustic interference or jamming at neuronal level, the neurons were not completely suppressed and responded to the rest of the echolocation sequence.