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GPCRs and ligand-gated ion channels mediate a great variety of physiological effects within the human brain and periphery. The search for selective ligands at these target sites as pharmacological tools or new drug candidates is of great interest. With increasing knowledge of the great diversity of some receptor families, compounds formerly considered to be selective, turned out to be non-selective with regard to recently identified subtypes, splice variants or additional receptor subunits. This work provides SAR studies by means of radioligand binding experiments at serotonergic h5-HT3A and h5-HT4(b) receptors, histamine hH1 receptors and muscarinic hM1-5 receptors. ...
The heat stress (hs) response is universal to all organisms. As the cell senses increase in temperature, heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) are activated to upregulate the expression of a number of genes encoding heat stress proteins (Hsp) which act as molecular chaperones to protect cells against heat damages. In higher plants, the phenomenon seems to be unusually complex both at the level of Hsfs and Hsps (e.g., 21 Hsf encoding genes in Arabidopsis and at least 17 in tomato). Upon prolonged hs, another characteristic property of plant cells is the assembly of large cytosolic aggregates called heat stress granules (HSG), which are composed of Hsps, HsfA2, RNA and RNA-binding proteins. The present work was aimed to understand plant hs response using tomato as a model system. To study the function of tomato Hsfs in their native system, we generated transgenic tomato lines altered in expression of HsfA1, HsfA2, and HsfB1. Tomato plants with 10-fold overexpression of HsfA1 (OE plants) were characterised by integration of a single HsfA1 expression cassette, whereas the plants harbouring a tandem inverted repeat (IR) of the cassette showed cosuppression of HsfA1 (CS plants). The lack of HsfA1 expression in CS plants results from posttranscriptional gene silencing connected with the formation of small interfering RNA (siRNA). Under normal growth conditions, major developmental features were similar for wild-type (WT), OE and CS plants. However, in contrast to the former two, CS plants and fruits were extremely sensitive to elevated temperature because hs-induced synthesis of major chaperones and Hsfs was strongly reduced or lacking. Despite the complexity of the plant Hsf family, the function of tomato HsfA1 is unique as master regulator of induced thermotolerance. On the other hand, maintenance of essential chaperones in CS plants during seed development suggests involvement of other Hsfs and/or transcription factor(s). HsfB1 and HsfA2 transgenic tomato plants, unaffected in thermotolerance, further supported the function of HsfA1 as the major factor regulating hs-inducible genes. Hs87 independent phenotypes of plants with altered expression of HsfB1 indicates developmental role of this Hsf. Using transient reporter assays with mesophyll protoplasts from WT tomato, we demonstrated that plasmids encoding Hsfs A1, A2 and A3 were well expressed which could function as activators for reporter gene expression. However, in protoplasts derived from CS plants, plasmids encoding HsfA2 and HsfA3 were normally expressed but even higher amounts of HsfA1 expression plasmids were completely silenced. Therefore, silencing of HsfA1 in CS plants was also reproduced in its mesophyll protoplasts. Lacking thermotolerance in CS protoplasts could be restored after transformation with expression plasmids encoding functionally equivalent HsfA2 or HsfA3 resulting in (i) expression of chaperones, (ii) survival of the cells at otherwise lethal temperature, (iii) thermoprotection of firefly luciferase, and (iv) assembly of heat stress granules (HSGs). The strong silencing caused by an IR in CS plants opened the possibility of a broad use of RNAi for gene knock-down also in the transient system of mesophyll protoplasts. Using this technology, we attempted to dissect essential components of thermotolerance and HSG assembly. We demonstrated the previously reported function of chaperones such as Hsp70 and Hsp101, and could discriminate the in vivo chaperone functions of different isoforms of Hsp20 and Hsp70 proteins. Hsp17-CI, Hsp70 (hs-inducible isoforms), and Hsp101 are absolutely essential chaperones for thermotolerance in plants. Furthermore, the results also show that despite Hsp17-CI and -CII being major components of HSG complexes, they are dispensable for assembly of these complexes. Based on these results, it is proposed that in the transient protoplast system an approach with gene-specific IRs can be used to discriminate functions of closely related isoforms among protein-families and to dissect complex protein networks.
Vascular occlusive diseases are one of the leading mortality causes in westernised countries. Occlusions of one of the major arteries can be overcome without devastating consequences provided a timely induction of compensating collateral arteries occurs. Perhaps the most outstanding feature of collateral vessel growth is the proliferation of smooth muscle cells (SMCs). Understanding the molecular mechanisms and identifying key molecular players of SMC proliferation would contribute significantly to the development of efficient therapies to intervene with all processes involving neointima formation, including collateral growth. mRNA and protein coding for co-transcription factor Egr1 were found to be up-regulated in growing collateral vessels 6, 12 or 24 hours following femoral artery ligation in mice. Since Egr1 is required for SMC proliferation in vitro and in vivo and likely to be implicated in the initiation of collateral artery growth, the key signalling mediators regulating Egr1 expression specifically in proliferating vascular SMCs were investigated. Northern blot and Western blot analysis revealed a strong up-regulation of Egr1 within 2 hours of stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2. These two potent SMC mitogens involved in neointima formation were used to stimulate vascular SMCs not only to delineate the regulators of Egr1 expression but also to identify additional key mediators of SMC proliferation. FGF-2 but not PDGF-AB led to a drastic reduction of desmin amount in proliferating SMCs, correlating closely with the phenotypic modulation of SMCs in vivo. Both growth factors triggered a dramatic increase in DNA-synthesis rate with a concomitant loss of p27 exp Kip1. Stimulation with PDGF-AB and FGF-2 triggered a rapid and transient activation of PDGFRβ and FGFR1 respectively, thus providing the basis for activation of down-stream targets. Analysis of an array of signalling pathways demonstrated a strong activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK cascade in response to both factors as measured by the level of phosphorylation of prominent members MEK, ERK1/2 and c-Myc. SAPK/JNK and p38, which also belong to the superfamily of MAP kinases, did not become activated following stimulation with either PDGF-AB or FGF-2. The analysis of various PKC isoforms identified PKCδ and PKCθ to be the key mediators of PDGF-AB- and FGF-2-induced mitogenesis in proliferating SMCs. Whereas PDGF-AB potently stimulated PKB/Akt with concomitant GSK3β phosphorylation, FGF-2-induced inactivation of GSK3β was independent of PKB/Akt. Specific inhibition in order to evaluate the contribution of individual pathways to Egr1 expression and vascular SMC proliferation revealed that inhibition of the Raf-MEK-ERK module by UO126 completely abolished DNA-synthesis and Egr1 expression without a compensation by alternative pathways. Surprisingly, inhibition of PI3K led to a switch to the mitogenic RafMEK-ERK signalling cascade which resulted in an augmented Egr1 expression. In conclusion, in porcine vascular SMCs, activation of the Ras-Raf-MEK-ERK signalling module appears to be the main prerequisite for Egr1 expression and DNA synthesis induction in response to PDGF-AB and FGF-2 whereas related kinases SAPK/JNK and p38 play no significant role. Inhibition of the PI3K-Akt cascade represents an alternative way to activate ERK1/2 and induce Egr1 expression. Whereas MEK is the central regulator of mitogenic effects in proliferating vascular SMCs, the PI3K-Akt pathway most likely exerts survival function. Inactivation of MEK by its specific inhibitors identified hyperphosphorylation as ayet unknown mechanism of kinase inhibition.
The objective of this study is the avifauna of the North American Green River Formation. Five new Green River bird species as well as several new specimens of already known species are described. * Galliformes: Gallinuloides wyomingensis EASTMAN 1900 A second specimen of the galliform Gallinuloides wyomingensis could be identified. Gallinuloides wyomingensis resembles closely Paraortygoides MAYR 1999, which is known from Messel and the London Clay. The new specimen exhibits characters such as a cup-like cotyla scapularis of the coracoid that clearly indicate that Gallinuloides is a stem-group representative of galliforms. * Eurypygidae: Eoeurypyga olsoni gen. et sp. nov. Eoeurypyga is the only fossil representative of the Eurypygidae. Eoeurypyga and the modern sunbittern Eurypyga helias share the typical long bill, the caudally situated neck and the elongated vertebrae cervicales. Additional synapomorph characters were found. The new species indicates a North American origin for the Eurypygidae. * Messelornithidae: Messelornis nearctica HESSE 1992 The original description of Messelornis nearctica was based on a single specimen. Ten new specimens, described in this study, reveal additional information. Messelornis nearctica shows the same large intraspecific size range as Messelornis cristata HESSE 1988 from Messel, the type species of the genus. * Apodidae: Wyomingcypselus pohli gen. nov. sp. nov. Wyomingcypselus pohli is the first described fossil apodiform bird for North American. Due to characters of the wing, especially the position of the processus musculi extensor metacarpi radialis, Wyomingcypselus is referrred to the Apodidae. * Trogoniformes: unnamed species The Green River birds include a poorly preserved, but apparently heterodactyl specimen, which also resembles trogons in overall appearance. * Primobucconidae: Primobucco mcgrewi BRODKORB 1970 Originally, Primobucco mcgrewi was only known from a partial skeleton consisting of the right wing. Three new specimens could be referred to the species. Primobucco mcgrewi clearly exhibits an anisodactyl foot, which makes the assignment to the zygodactyl Bucconidae highly doubtful. Instead, Primobucco mcgrewi is referrred to the Coraciiformes s.s. Thus, Primobucconidae are the first New World representatives of stem-group Coraciiformes. * ?Leptosomidae: Plesiocathartes wyomingensis sp. nov. and Plesiocathartes major sp. nov. Plesiocathartes wyomingensis and Plesiocathartes major represent the first North American record for the genus. Both species exhibit the diagnostic characters for the Leptosomidae as listed by MAYR (2002a, b). * Primoscenidae: Eozygodactylus americanus gen. et sp. nov. and unnamed species Eozygodactylus americanus is the first North American member of this taxon. Both Eozygodactylus americanus and the unnamed species show the zygodactyl foot and the large processus intermetacarpalis of the carpometacarpus, which are typical for Primoscendiae. Due to differences mainly of the humerus, it was placed in a new genus. Besides the descriptionof new species, the avifauna of the Green River Formatin was studied and compared with the avifauna of Messel. The formations show a high concordance, more than 60 % of the Green River taxa also occur in Messel. Such a high concordance is also found for mammals. This is due to the existence of two landbridges, the Thule landbridge and the de Geer landbridge, between Europe and North America during the early Eocene.
In contrast to the class A heat stress transcription factors (Hsfs) of plants, a considerable number of Hsfs assigned to classes B and C have no evident function as transcription activators on their own. In the course of my PhD work I showed that tomato HsfB1, a heat stress induced member of class B Hsf family, is a novel type of transcriptional coactivator in plants. Together with class A Hsfs, e.g. tomato HsfA1, it plays an important role in efficient transcrition initiation during heat stress by forming a type of enhanceosome on fragments of Hsp promoter. Characterization of promoter architecture of hsp promoters led to the identification of novel, complex heat stress element (HSE) clusters, which are required for optimal synergistic interactions of HsfA1 and HsfB1. In addition, HsfB1 showed synergistic activation of the expression of a subset of viral and house keeping promoters. CaMV35S promoter, the most widely expressed constitutive promoter turned out to be the the most interesting candidate to study this effect in detail. Because, for most house-keeping promoters tested during this study, the activators responsible for constitutive expression are not known, but in case of CaMV35S promoter they are quite well known (the bZip proteins, TGA1/2). These proteins belong to the acidic activators, similar to class A Hsfs. Actually, on heat stress inducible promoters HsfA1 or other class A Hsfs are the synergistic partners of HsfB1, whereas on house-keeping or viral promoters, HsfB1 shows synergistic transcriptional activation in cooperation with the promoter specific acidic activators, e.g. with TGA proteins on 35S promoter. In agreement with this the binding sites for HsfB1 were identified in both house-keeping and 35S promoter. It has been suggested during this study that HsfB1 acts in the maintenance of transcription of a sub-set of house-keeping and viral genes during heat stress. The coactivator function of HsfB1 depends on a single lysine residue in the GRGK motif in its CTD. Since, this motif is highly conserved among histones as the acetylation motif, especially in histones H2A and H4,. It was suggested that the GRGK motif acts as a recruitment motif, and together with the other acidic activator is responsible for corecruitment of a histone acetyl transferase (HAT). So, the effect of mammalian CBP (a well known HAT) and its plant orthologs (HAC1) was tested on the stimulation of synergistic reporter gene activation obtained with HsfA1 and HsfB1. Both in plant and mammalian cells, CBP/HAC1 further stimulated the HsfA1/B1 synergistic effect. Corecruitment of HAC1 was proven by in vitro pull down assays, where the NTD of HAC1 interacted specifically both with HsfA1 and HsfB1. Formation of a ternary complex between HsfA1, HsfB1 and CBP/HAC1 was shown via coimmunoprecipitation and electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA). In conclusion, the work presented in my thesis presents a new model for transcriptional regulation during an ongoing heat stress.
In an attempt to search for potential candidate molecules involved in the pathogenesis of endometriosis, a novel 2910 bp cDNA encoding a putative 411 amino acid protein, shrew-1 was discovered. By computational analysis it was predicted to be an integral membrane protein with an outside-in transmembrane domain but no homology with any known protein or domain could be identified. Antibodies raised against the putative open-reading frame peptide of shrew-1 labelled a protein of ca. 48 kDa in extracts of shrew-1 mRNA positive tissues and also detected ectopically expressed shrew-1. In the course of my PhD work, I confirmed the prediction that shrew-1 is indeed a transmembrane protein, by expressing epitope-tagged shrew-1 in epithelial cells and analysing the transfected cells by surface biotinylation and immunoblots. Additionally, I could show that shrew-1 is able to target to E-cadherin-mediated adherens junctions and interacts with the E-cadherin-catenin complex in polarised MCF7 and MDCK cells, but not with the N-cadherin-catenin complex in non-polarised epithelial cells. A direct interaction of shrew-1 with beta-catenin could be shown in an in vitro pull-down assay. From this data, it could be assumed that shrew-1 might play a role in the function and/or regulation of the dynamics of E-cadherin-mediated junctional complexes. In the next part of my thesis, I showed that stable overexpression of shrew-1 in normal MDCK cells. causes changes in morphology of the cells and turns them invasive. Furthermore, transcription by ²-catenin was activated in these MDCK cells stably overexpressing shrew-1. It was probably the imbalance of shrew-1 protein at the adherens junctions that led to the misregulation of adherens junctions associated proteins, i.e. E-cadherin and beta-catenin. Caveolin-1 is another integral membrane protein that forms complexes with Ecadherin- beta-catenin complexes and also plays a role in the endocytosis of E-cadherin during junctional disruption. By immunofluorescence and biochemical studies, caveolin-1 was identified as another interacting partner of shrew-1. However, the functional relevance of this interaction is still not clear. In conclusion, it can be said that shrew-1 interacts with the key players of invasion and metastasis, E-cadherin and caveolin-1, suggesting its possible role in these processes and making it an interesting candidate to unravel other unknown mechanisms involved in the complex process of invasion.
Remodeling of extracellular matrix (ECM) is an important physiologic feature of normal growth and development. In addition to this critical function in physiology many diseases have been associated with an imbalance of ECM synthesis and degradation. In the kidney, dysregulation of ECM turnover can lead to interstitial fibrosis, and glomerulosclerosis. The major physiologic regulators of ECM degradation in the glomerulus are the large family of zinc-dependent proteases, collectively refered to matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The tight regulation of most of these proteases is accomplished by different mechanisms, including the regulation of MMP gene expression, the processing and conversion of the inactive zymogen by other proteases such as serine proteases and finally the inhibition of active MMPs by endogenous inhibitors of MMPs, denoted as tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs). Namely, the MMP-9 has been shown to be critically involved in the dysregulation of ECM turnover associated with severe pathologic conditions such as rheumatoid arthritis or fibrosis of lung, skin and kidney. In the present work I searched for a possible modulation of MMP-9 expression and/or activity in glomerular mesangial cells which are thought as key players of many inflammatory and non-inflammatory glomerular diseases. I found that various structurally different PPARalpha agonists such as WY-14,643, LY-171883 and fibrates potently suppress the cytokine-induced MMP-9 expression in renal MC. Furthermore, I demonstrate that the inhibition of MMP-9 expression by PPARalpha agonists was paralleled by a strong increase of cytokine-induced iNOS expression and subsequent NO formation, suggesting that PPARalpha-dependent effects on MMP-9 expression level primarily result from alterations in NO production which in turn reduces the MMP-9 mRNA half-life. Searching for the detailed mechanism of NO-dependent effects on MMP-9 mRNA stability, I found that NO either given from exogenous sources or endogenously produced increases the MMP-9 mRNA degradation by decreasing the expression of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate a reduction in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to MMP-9 ARE motifs in cells treated with NO. Since the reduction of HuR expression can be mimicked by the cGMP analog 8-Bromo-cGMP, I suggest that NO reduces in a cGMP-dependent manner the expression of HuR. Finally, I elucidated the modulatory effect of extracellular nucleotides, mainly ATP, on cytokine-triggered MMP-9 expression. Interestingly, I found that in contrast to NO, gamma-S-ATP the stable analog of ATP potently amplifies the IL-beta mediated MMP-9 expression. The increase in mRNA stability was paralleled by an increase in the nuclear-cytosolic shuttling of the mRNA stabilizing factor HuR. Furthermore, I demonstrate an increase in the RNA-binding capacity of HuR containing complexes to the 3'-UTR of MMP-9 by ATP. In summary, the data presented here may help to find new targets (posttranscriptional regulation) that could be used to manipulate or modulate the expression of not only MMP-9 but also other genes regulated on the level of mRNA stability.
In this thesis the anti-proton to proton ratio in 197Au + 197Au collisions, measured at mid-rapidity, at a center of mass energy of psNN = 200GeV is reported. The value was measured to be ¹p/p = 0.81+-0.002stat +- 0.05syst: in the 5% most central collisions. The ratio shows no dependence on rapidity in the range jyj < 0:5. Furthermore, a dependence on transverse momentum within 0:4< p? < 1:0 GeV/c is not observed. At higher p?, a slight drop in the ratio is observed. In the present analysis, the highest momentum considered is p? = 4:5 GeV/c yielding ¹p=p = 0:645§0:005stat: §0:10syst:. However, the systematic error is higher in this momentum range. A slight centrality dependence was observed, where a decrease from ¹p=p = 0:83§0:002stat:§0:05syst: for most peripheral collisions (less than 80% central) to ¹p=p = 0:78§0:002stat:§0:05syst: for the 5% most central collisions was measured. An estimate of the feed-down contributions fromthe decay of heavier strange baryons results in ¹p=p = 0:77 § 0:05syst:. The measured ratio indicates a » 12:5 times higher value compared to the highest SPS energy of psNN = 17:3 and an \almost net-baryon free" region, at mid- rapidity. The asymmetry of protons and anti-protons may be explained by the contribution ofvalence quarks in a nucleus break-up picture. In such a scenario, the absolute value of the ratio and the fact that the ratio does not depend on rapidity (at mid-rapidity) is well reproduced. Fragmentation of quarks and anti- quarks into protons and anti-protons is assumed. An estimate of the ratio, when feed-down correction is taken into consideration, agrees well with the prediction of a statistical model analysis at a temperature of T = 177 § 7 MeV and a baryon chemical potential of ¹B = 29 § 8 MeV. The temperature achieved is only slightly higher when compared to the top SPS energy, while the baryochemical potential is factor »10 lower. As in the case of the SPS results, these parameters are close to the phase boundary of Figure 1.6. The measurement of the ratio at high transverse momentum was of special in- terest in this analysis, since at RHIC energies, the cross section for hadrons at high transverse momentum is increased with respect to SPS energies. The weak dependence of the ratio on the transverse momentum is well described by the non- perturbative quenched and baryon junction scenario (i.e. Soft+Quench model), where baryon creation is enhanced by baryon junctions. In comparison the ratio does not decrease within the considered momentum range as predicted by pQCD.
Der Produktion von Interleukin-8 (IL-8), Hämoxygenase-1 (HO-1), und dem vaskulären endothelialen Wachstumsfaktor (VEGF) wird zunehmend größere Bedeutung im Rahmen der Regulation der Immunantwort bei Entzündung, Infektion und Tumorwachstum zugemessen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war die Untersuchung der Regulation dieser Botenstoffe in vitro durch Verwendung der humanen Dickdarmkarzinomzellinie DLD-1. Die Substanz Pyrrolidinedithiocarbamate (PDTC) verstärkt nicht nur die durch Tumornekrosefaktor-a (TNF-a) vermittelte Ausschüttung von IL-8, sondern induziert auch als alleiniger Stimulus die IL-8-Sekretion. Mutationsanalysen des IL-8-Promotors und "Electrophoretic Mobility Shift" Untersuchungen (EMSA) zeigten, daß die Aktivierung des Transkriptionsfaktors AP-1 (Aktivator Protein-1) und die Bindungsaktivität von konstitutiv aktiviertem NF-KB in DLD-1 Zellen für die PDTC induzierte IL-8 Expression zwingend erforderlich waren. Weiterhin war PDTC in der Lage in DLD-1 Zellen neben IL-8 auch die Expression von HO-1 und VEGF zu verstärken. Die Induktion von IL-8 durch PDTC war nicht nur auf DLD-1 Zellen beschränkt, sondern wurde auch in Caco-2 Zellen (ebenfalls Dickdarmkrebszellen) und in humanen mononukleären Blutzellen beobachtet. Die Verwendung von PDTC wird seit kurzem als Kombinationspräparat für Zytostatia zur Behandlung von verschiedenen bösartigen Tumoren, unter ihnen auch Darmkrebs, vorgeschlagen. Aus unseren Versuchen läßt sich ableiten, daß die Induktion von IL-8, HO-1 und VEGF die therapeutische Anwendung dieser Substanz nachteilig beeinflussen könnte. Dies ergibt sich daraus, daß alle drei genannten Faktoren durch proangiogene Wirkungen das Tumorwachstum fördern. Die Expression der induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase und die Produktion von Stickoxid (NO) korreliert mit der Angiogenese bei verschiedenen Krebserkrankungen darunter Melanome, Tumore im Hals- und Kopfbereich und Darmkrebs. Da tumorbegünstigende Funktionen von NO mit vermehrter Angiogenese in Verbindung gebracht werden, wurden die Effekte von NO hinsichtlich der Produktion von ausgesuchten Chemokinen, die an der Steuerung des Tumorwachstums beteiligt sind, untersucht. Zu diesen Chemokinen gehören das proangiogene IL-8 sowie das tumorsuppressiv durch Interferon induzierbare Protein-10 (IP-10) und das Monokin induziert durch Interferon-y (MIG). Diese Chemokine werden, nach Stimulation mit IL- 1ß und lnterferon-? (IFN-?) von DLD-1 Zellen, ausgeschüttet. Unter diesen Bedingungen wird die IL-8 Freisetzung alleine durch IL-1ß vermittelt, aber nicht durch INFy. Im Gegensatz zu IL-8 hängt die Sekretion von IP-10 und MIG von der Aktivierung durch IFNy ab. Die Effekte von NO wurden analysiert indem DLD-1 Zellen mit dem NO-Donor DETA-NO inkubiert wurden. DETA-NO besitzt eine Halbwertzeit von 16,5h und simuliert damit die Effekte der endogenen NO-Synthase. Synthese und Freisetzung von IL-8 wurden durch die Behandlung mit NO stark gesteigert. Außerdem wurde in Zellen die dem NO-Donor ausgesetzt wurden die basale Sekretion des VEGF signifikant verstärkt. Dies steht im Gegensatz zur IL-Iß/IFNy-induzierten Produktion von IP-10 und MIG, beide wurden durch Koinkubation mit NO unterdrückt. Ebenso wurde die Regulation der IFNy abhängigen induzierbaren Stickoxidsynthase in DLD-1 Zellen von NO unterdrückt. Die vorliegenden Daten ergänzen vorherige Studien, in denen NO mit Tumorangiogenese und verstärkten Tumorwachstum in Verbindung gebracht wird. Die NO vermittelte Induktion von IL-8 und VEGF, ebenso wie die Verminderung der IP-10 and MIG Expression, könnte zu diesem Phänomen beitragen. Unsere Studien stützen die Hypothese, daß spezifische lnhibitoren der iNOS therapeutischen Nutzen bei humanen Neoplasien haben könnten.
Cytochrome c oxidase is the terminal enzyme in the respiratory chain of mitochondria and aerobic bacteria. This enzyme ultimately couples electron transfer from cytochrome c to an oxygen molecule with proton translocation across the inner mitochondrial and bacterial membrane. This reaction requires complicated chemical processes to occur at the catalytic site of the enzyme in coordination with proton translocation, the exact mechanism of which is not known at present. The mechanisms underlying oxygen activation, electron transfer and coupling of electron transfer to proton translocation are the main questions in the field of bioenergetics. The major goal of this work was to investigate the coupling of electron transfer and proton translocation in cytochrome c oxidase from Paracoccus denitrificans. Different theoretical approaches have been used to investigate the coupling of electron and proton transfer. This thesis presents an internal water prediction scheme in the enzyme and a molecular dynamics study of cytochrome c oxidase from Paracoccus denitrificans in the fully oxidized state, embedded in a fully hydrated dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine lipid bilayer membrane. Two parallel molecular dynamics simulations with different levels of protein hydration, 1.125 ns each in length, were carried out under conditions of constant temperature and pressure using three-dimensional periodic boundary conditions and full electrostatics to investigate the distribution and dynamics of water molecules and their corresponding hydrogen-bonded networks inside cytochrome c oxidase. The average number of solvent sites in the proton conducting K- and D- pathways was determined. The highly fluctuating hydrogen-bonded networks, combined with the significant diffusion of individual water molecules provide a basis for the transfer of protons in cytochrome c oxidase, therefore leading to a better understanding of the mechanism of proton pumping. The importance of the hydrogen bonding network and the possible coupling of local structural changes to larger scale changes in the cytochrome c oxidase during the catalytic cycle have been shown.
Obwohl Böden unzweifelhaft ein signifikanter Pool von organischem Kohlenstoff sind, ist ihre Bedeutung als potenzielle langfristige Senke für atmosphärischen Kohlenstoff keineswegs klar. Trotz bedeutender wissenschaftlicher Forschritte aus den letzten Jahren zur Klärung der Kohlenstoffdynamik in Böden gibt es nach wie vor offene Fragen insbesondere hinsichtlich der spezifischen geochemischen Mechanismen, die für die Stabilisierung organischen Kohlenstoffs in Böden verantwortlich sind. Vor diesem Hintergrund besteht ein wesentliches Ziel der vorliegenden Dissertation darin, in unterschiedlichen Bodentypen die Konzentration von organischem Kohlenstoff und Stickstoff sowie die mineralogische Zusammensetzung zu untersuchen, um Hinweise auf einen möglichen Einfluss der Tonmineralogie, der spezifischen Oberfläche und der Oxidkonzentration auf die Stabilisierung organischen Materials zu ermitteln. Die Ergebnisse sollen einen Beitrag dazu liefern, die Mechanismen der Fixierung organischer Substanz in Böden besser zu verstehen und das vorhandene Wissen hierüber zu erweitern. Hierzu wurden fünf verschiedene Bodenprofile aus Hessen mit unterschiedlicher mineralogischer Zusammensetzung untersucht. Um die Auswirkungen verschiedener physikalischer und geochemischer Faktoren auf den Gehalt organischer Substanz in den untersuchten Böden festzustellen, wurden folgende Parameter untersucht: -Tonmineralogie, -organische Kohlenstoff- und Stickstoff-Konzentrationen, -%-Kationensättigung, -spezifische Oberfläche, -dithionit- und oxalatlösliche Gehalte an Fe, Al und Mn. Anhand dieser Parameter wurden weiterführende statistische Analysen unter Verwendung der Statistiksoftware SPSS für Windows durchgeführt, um mögliche statistische Zusammenhänge aufzudecken, die für die Stabilisierung von organischem Kohlenstoff in den betrachteten Böden verantwortlich sind. Die im Rahmen der vorliegenden Dissertation ermittelten Ergebnisse zeigen, dass der Tonanteil und die Tonmineralogie der untersuchten Böden nur einen begrenzten Einfluss auf die Stabilisierung organischer Substanz haben. Weiterhin wird gezeigt, dass die in der Literatur propagierte Beziehung zwischen spezifischer Oberfläche und der Konzentration organischen Kohlenstoffs nicht auf alle Böden anwendbar ist. Die Ergebnisse deuten darauf hin, dass die Präsenz von amorphen Eisen- und Aluminiumoxiden der wichtigste Einflussfaktor für die Fixierung von organischem Material in den untersuchten Böden ist. Die größeren Konzentrationen von organischem Kohlenstoff in den kleinsten Fraktionen (Feinschluff und Ton) der Profile sind vor allem darauf zurückzuführen, dass Oxide ebenfalls in diesen Fraktionen aufzufinden sind. Tonminerale haben demnach eine sekundäre Bedeutung, indem sie Komplexe mit den Oxiden bilden, die zur Stabilisierung von organischer Substanz führen können. Insgesamt deuten die Ergebnisse daraufhin, dass Böden keine geeignete Senke für die langfristige Speicherung von organischem Kohlenstoff sind. Obwohl Mechanismen wie die Adsorption von organischer Substanz an Oxide die Stabilisierung organischen Materials unterstützen, scheinen diese nicht stark genug zu sein, um eine permanente Speicherung von organischem Kohlenstoff zu bewirken.
A gene trap strategy was used to identify genes induced in hematopoietic cells undergoing apoptosis by growth factor withdrawal. IL-3 dependent survival of hematopoietic cells relies on a delicate balance between proliferation and apoptosis that is controlled by the availability of cytokines (Thompson, 1995; Iijima et al., 2002). From our previous results of gene trap assay, we postulated that transcriptionally activated antagonistic genes against apoptosis might actually block or delay cell death (Wempe et al., 2001) causing cells to have carcinogenic behavior. The analysis attempted to better understand the outcome of a death program following IL-3 deprivation and to identify those survival genes whose expression is affected by time dependent manner. As described in the chapter 4, there would be two major conclusions evident from the three separate experiments (Genetrap, Atlas cDNA array and Affymetrix chips): Firstly 56% of trapped genes, that are up-regulated by IL-3 withdrawal (28 of 50), are directly related to cell death or survival. Secondly, unlike most array technologies, gene trapping only selects for the transiently induced genes that is independent of pre-existing steady state mRNA levels. In regarding correlations of the genes with potential carcinogenesis, the pre-existing mRNA makes difficult to describe the unique characteristics of deregulated tumor tissue genes. For a joint project with Schering (Schering AG, Berlin), the genes of our GTSTs were examined. The first screen with custom array was used to look for whether the survival genes of our GTSTs are involved in various cancer cell lines, whilst the second screen with Matched Tumor/Normal Array was used to characterize if the selected seven genes (ERK3, Plekha2, KIAA1140, PI4P5Ka/g, KIAA0740, KIAA1036 and PEST domains) are transformation-related genes or not in different tumor tissues. Twenty-six genes were identified as either induced or repressed in one or more cell lines. Genetic information is expressed in complex and ever changing patterns throughout a life span of cells. A description of these patterns and how they relate to the tissue specific cancer is crucial for our understanding of the network of genetic interactions that underlie the processes of normal development, disease and evolution. The development of cancer and its progression is clearly a multiplex phenotype, as a function of time, involving dozens of primary genes and hundreds of secondary modifier genes. There would be a major conclusion evident from the three separate experiments (Genetrap, Affymetrix mouse chip and Matched Tumor/Normal Array): ERK3 could play a significant role in breast, stomach and uterus carcinogenesis with tissue specific regulations. It is clear that ERK3 is obvious putative survival gene in these tumor tissues. Especially, in breast tumors, seven times up-regulation was considerable and the activation of ERK3 could be a feature of breast tumors. My results imply that the unique deregulation of ERK3 is perhaps the major consequence of possible transformation of normal cells into malignant cancer cells, even though further analysis remains to be determined whether an alterated activity of associated survival genes is primarily responsible for a carcinogenesis. However unlike all the other known MAP Kinases, no stimuli and no nuclear substrates of ERK3 is reported. Therefore, it will be necessary first to determine the spectrum of substrates and to identify the proximal effectors for the ERK3 in breast carcinoma cells.
Zahnwale sind die einzige Säugetiergruppe, die umfassend an ein Leben im Wasser angepasst ist und dabei ein aktives Sonarsystem zur Orientierung nutzt. Wahrscheinlich produzieren alle Zahnwalarten sonische oder ultrasonische Klicklaute, deren Echos die Tiere zu einem drei-dimensionalen "akustischen Bild" zusammensetzen. Im Gegensatz zu den meisten anderen Säugetieren produzieren Zahnwale diese Laute im Nasen-Komplex durch einen pneumatisch betriebenen Mechanismus. Jedoch spielt auch der Kehlkopf dabei eine wichtige Rolle, indem er den nötigen Luftdruck in der Nase erzeugt. Die Ergebnisse werden in Bezug auf die physikalischen Voraussetzungen eines Bio-Sonars in einer aquatischen Umwelt interpretiert. Um die morphologischen Eigenschaften (Struktur, Form, Topographie) der Organe im Kopf verschiedener Zahnwalarten vollständig zu erfassen, wurden diese mittels Computertomographie und Magnetresonanztomographie gescannt. Daraufhin wurden die Köpfe makroskopisch präpariert und histologische Schnitte von Gewebeproben angefertigt. Schließlich wurden die Ergebnisse durch digitale dreidimensionale Rekonstruktionen vervollständigt. Diese Studie basiert zum größten Teil auf der Untersuchung von Schweinswalen (Phocoena phocoena) und Pottwalen (Physeter macrocephalus). Zum Vergleich wurden fetale und postnatale Individuen anderer Zahnwalarten herangezogen wie Delphinartige (Delphinus delphis, Stenella attenuata, Tursiops truncatus), Flussdelphinartige (Pontoporia blainvillei, Inia geoffrensis) und der Zwergpottwal (Kogia breviceps). Im Allgemeinen konnte durch die morphologischen Daten dieser Studie die einheitliche "phonic lips-Hypothese der Schallproduktion bei Zahnwalen, wie sie von Cranford, Amundin und Norris [J. Morphol. 228 (1996): 223-285] aufgestellt wurde, bestätigt werden. Diese Hypothese beschreibt eine ventilartige Struktur in der Nasenpassage, den sogenannten "monkey lips/dorsal bursae complex" (MLDB) als Schallgenerator. Der pneumatische Mechanismus lässt die beiden Hälften des MLDB aufeinanderschlagen und erzeugt damit die initiale Schallschwingung im Gewebe ("phonic lips"). Diese Vibration wird über die Melone, einen großen Fettkörper in der vorderen Nasenregion der Zahnwale, fokussiert und in das umgebende Wasser übertragen. Die akzessorischen Nasensäcke und spezielle Schädel- und Bindegewebestrukturen können zu der Fokussierung beitragen. Obwohl die Echolotsignale der Schweinswale sehr spezialisiert zu sein scheinen, weisen die Übereinstimmungen in der Topographie und in der Form der Nasenstrukturen im Vergleich zu Delphinen und Flussdelphinartigen (Pontoporia und Inia) auf eine ganz ähnliche Funktion der Nase bezüglich der Produktion und Emission von Echolotschall hin. Allerdings gibt es einige anatomische Besonderheiten im Nasenkomplex des Schweinswals, welche die besondere Pulsstruktur der Sonarsignale erklären könnte. Diese werden in der Dissertation diskutiert. Bei einem Vergleich der Nasenmorphologie der Pottwale einerseits und der nicht-pottwalartigen Zahnwale andererseits fällt vor allem der Grad der Asymmetrie ins Auge. Im Gegensatz zu dem oben für Delphine und Schweinswale beschrieben Mechanismus betreiben Pottwale die Schallproduktion an den "monkey lips" mit Luft, die im rechten Nasengang unter Druck gesetzt wird (und nicht im nasopharyngealen Raum). Zudem könnte durch Änderung des Luftvolumens im rechten Nasengang die Schalltransmission zwischen den Fettkörpern, und somit die Schallemission, kontrolliert werden. In diesem theoretischen Szenario fungiert der breite rechte Nasengang als eine Art "akustische Schranke", welche zwischen zwei verschiedenen Modi der Klickproduktion wechselt: Der erste Modus mit luftgefülltem Nasengang führt zur Produktion der Kommunikationsklicks ("coda clicks") und der zweite Modus zur Aussendung von Echolotklicks, wenn der Nasengang kollabiert ist. Somit scheinen die zentrale Position und die nahezu horizontale Orientierung des rechten Nasengangs im Kopf der Pottwale als Schnittstelle (Schranke) zwischen den beiden großen Fettkörpern mit dem Mechanismus der Schallproduktion bei veränderten Luftvolumina korreliert zu sein. Die hier beschriebenen und andere Ergebnisse dieser Dissertation deuten darauf hin, dass die Gestalt und das Ausmaß der Nasenasymmetrie nicht mit der systematischen Zugehörigkeit der jeweiligen Art korrelieren, sondern durch den jeweiligen Typus des Sonarsystems als Ausdruck einer bestimmten ökologischen Anpassung bedingt sind. Bei Zahnwalen ist der Kehlkopf charakterisiert durch eine rostrale Verlängerung des Kehldeckels und der beiden Stellknorpel, die ein gänseschnabelartiges Rohr bilden, das von einem starken Sphinktermuskel umrundet und dabei in Position gehalten wird. Auf diese Weise ist das Atemrohr vollständig vom Digestionstrakt getrennt. Aus anatomischer Sicht ist es wahrscheinlich, dass die Schallerzeugung bei Zahnwalen durch eine Kolbenbewegung des Kehlkopfes in Richtung der Choanen zustande kommt, wodurch der Luftdruck im Nasenbereich erzeugt wird. Die Kontraktion des Sphinktermuskels als einem muskulösen Schlauch erzeugt wahrscheinlich die größte Kraft für diese Kolbenbewegung. Jedoch dürften die Muskelgruppen, die den Kehlkopf und das Zungenbein am Unterkiefer und an der Schädelbasis aufhängen, signifikant zur Druckerhöhung beitragen.
The endothelin B receptor belongs to the rhodopsin-like G-protein coupled receptors family. It plays an important role in vasodilatation and is found in the membranes of the endothelial cells enveloping blood vessels. During the course of this work, the production of recombinant human ETB receptor in yeast, insect and mammalian cells was evaluated. A number of different receptor constructs for production in the yeast P. pastoris was prepared. Various affinity tags were appended to the receptor N-and C-termini to enable receptor detection and purification. The clone pPIC9KFlagHisETBBio, with an expression level of 60 pmol/mg, yielded the highest amount of active receptor (1.2 mg of receptor per liter of shaking culture). The expression level of the same clone in fermentor culture was 17 pmol/mg, and from a 10L fermentor it was possible to obtain 3 kg of cells that contained 20-39 mg of the receptor. For receptor production in insect cells, Sf9 (S. frugiperda) suspension cells were infected with the recombinant baculovirus pVlMelFlagHisETBBio. The peak of receptor production was reached at 66 h post infection, and radioligand binding assays on insect cell membranes showed 30 pmoL of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Subsequently, the efficiency of different detergents in solubilizing the active receptor was evaluated. N-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside (LM), lauryl-sucrose and digitonine/cholate performed best, and LM was chosen for further work. The ETB receptor was produced in mammalian cells using the Semliki Forest Virus expression system. Radioligand binding assays on membranes from CHO cells infected with the recombinant virus pSFV3CAPETBHis showed 7 pmol of active receptor /mg of membrane protein. Since the receptor yield from mammalian cells was much lower than in yeast and insect cells, this system was not used for further large-scale receptor production. After production in yeast and insect cells, the ETB receptor was saturated with its ligand, endothelin-1, in order to stabilize its native form. The receptor was subsequently solubilized with n-dodecyl-beta-D-maltoside and subjected to purification on various affinity matrices. Two-step affinity purification via Ni2+-NTA and monomeric avidin proved the most efficient way to purify milligram amounts of the receptor. The purity of the receptor preparation after this procedure was over 95%, as judged from silver stained gels. However, the tendency of the ETB receptor produced in yeast to form aggregates was a constant problem. Attempts were made to stabilize the active, monomeric form of the receptor by testing a variety of different buffer conditions, but further efforts in this direction will be necessary in order to solve the aggregation problem. In contrast to preparations from yeast, the purification of the ETB receptor produced in insect cells yielded homogeneous receptor preparations, as shown by gel filtration analysis. This work has demonstrated that the amounts of receptor expressed in yeast and insect cells and the final yield of receptor, isolated by purification, represent a good basis for beginning 3D and continuing 2D crystallization trials.
Hepatitis E virus (HEV) is a positive-stranded RNA virus with a 7.2 kb genome that is capped and polyadenylated. The virus is currently unclassified : the organisation of the genome resembles that of the Caliciviridae but sequence analyses suggest that it is more closely related to the Togaviridae. HEV is an enterically transmitted virus that causes both epidemics and sporadic cases of acute hepatitis in many countries of Asia and Africa but only rarely causes disease in more industrialised countries. Initially the virus was believed to have a limited geographical distribution. However, serological studies suggest that that HEV may be endemic also in the United states and Europe even though it infrequently causes overt disease in these countries. Many different animal species worldwide recently have been shown to have antibodies to HEV suggesting that hepatitis E may be zoonotic. Although two related strains have been experimentally transmitted between species, direct transmission from animal to a human has not been documented. Our main objective in this study is to evaluate the suitability of current available HEV antibody assays for use in low-endemicity areas such as in Germany. Methods: We selected sera on the basis of at least borderline reactivity in the routinely used Abbot EIA. Most were tested as part of routine screening of long-term expatriates in endemic countries. The following assays (recombinant antigens : ORF2 and ORF3) were used: Abbot EIA, Genelabs ELISA, Mikrogen recomBlot and a 'Prototype' DSL-ELISA. We observed a wide range of sensitivity ( average of 56.8%) and specificity ( an average of 61.4%) in these used assays. These results implies that , these assays might be unreliable for detection of HEV infection in areas where hepatitis E is not endemic. However, most anti- HEV assays have not been correlated with the HEV RNA determined by reverse transcription. Many of these unexpected results and discrepancies can be alluded to the following reasons: I. The choice and the size of the HEV antigen. II. Duration of the antibody persistence III. A cross reactivity with different agent IV. Due to geographic species V. A low sensitivity of the available assays. VI. And infection with non-pathogenic HEV strain. (zoonotic strain?). We therefore suggest that, further studies will be required to improve the sensitivity and specificity of the available commercial assays on the market.
The focus of this study were Celtic gold coins excavated from the Martberg, a Celtic oppidium and sanctuary, occupied in the first century B.C. by a Celtic tribe known as the Treveri. These coins and a number of associated coinages, were characterised in terms of their alloy compositions and their geochemical and isotopic signatures so as to answer archaeological and numismatic questions of coinage development and metal sources. This required the development of analytical methods involving; Electron Microprobe (EPMA), Laser Ablation-ICP-MS, solution Multicollector-ICPMS and LA-MC-ICP-MS. The alloy compositions (Au-Ag-Cu-Sn) were determined by EPMA on a small polished area on the edge of the coins. A large beam size, 50µm (diameter), was used to overcome the extreme heterogeneity of these alloys. These analyses were shown to be representative of the bulk composition of the coins. The metallurgical development of the coinages was defined and showed that the earlier coinages followed a debasement trend, which was superceded by a trend of increasing copper at the expense of sliver while gold compositions remained stable. This change occurred with the appearance of the inscribed "POTTINA" coinage, Scheers 30/V. Two typologically different coinages, Scheers 16 and 18 ("Armorican Types") were found to have markedly different compositions which do not fit into the trends described above. A Flan for a gold coin, which may indicate the presence of a mint at the Martberg, was found to have an identicle weight and composition as the Scheers 30/I coins, which preceeded the majority of the coins found at the Martberg in the coin development chronology. The trace element anaylses were made by Laser Ablation-ICPMS using an AridusTM desolvating nebuliser to introduce matrix matched solution standards to calibrate the measurements, which were then normalised to 100%. Quantitative results were obtained for the following elements: Sc, Ti, Cr, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Se, Ru, Rh, Pd, Ag, Sb, Te, W, Ir, Pt, Pb, Bi. The remaining elements remain problematic as they produced incorrect standardisations mainly due to chemical effects in solution such as adsorption onto the beaker walls or oxidation : V, Fe, Ga, Ge, As, Mo, Sn, Re, Os, Hg. Changes in the sources of Au, Ag and Cu were observed during the development of the coinages through the variation of trace elements, which correlate positively with the major components of the coin alloys. Changes in the Pt/Au ratios show that the Scheers 23 coins contain distinctly different gold from the later coinages and that the Scheers 18 gold source was also different. Te/Ag was used to show that the Sch.23 coins also contained different silver and some subgroups were observed in the Sch. 30/V coins. A major change in copper source is indicated by the sudden increase of Sb and Ni with the introduction of the Sch. 30/V coins (POTTINA), which can be linked to a similar change in copper observed in the contemporary silver coinage, Sch. 55 (with a ring). Lead isotopic analyses were made by solution- and Laser Ablation - MC-ICP-MS, The laser technique proved to be in good agreement with the solution analyses with precisions between 1 and 0.1%o (per mil). The development of the laser method opens the way for easy and virtually non-destructive Pb isotopic determinations of ancient gold coins. The results showed that Sch. 23 is very different from the following coinages, Sch. 16 and 18 are also different, forming their own group, and all the later "Eye" staters (Sch. 30/I-VI) lie on a mixing line controlled by the addition of copper from a Mediterranean source, probably Sardinia or Spain. An indication of gold and silver sources should be possible with further analyses of the Sch. 23 and Rainbow Cup gold coins and the Sch. 54 and 55 silver coinages. Copper Isotopic analyses were made by solution- and Laser Ablation - MC-ICP-MS. Both techniques require further development to produce more reproducible results. The results show that there appears to be a trend to more positive d Cu65 values for the later coinages and that the link between the copper used in the Sch. 30/V (POTTINA) coins and the silver Sch. 55 (with a ring) coins is also shown by similarly postive d Cu65 values. The full suite of analyses were also made on samples of gold from the region. They were mostly composed of "placer gold", alluvial gold found in rivers. It was found that when a study is restricted to a limited number of deposits or areas then it is possible to distinguish between deposits based on the concentration of those elements which are least affected by transport related alteration processes. These elements include; the PGE's, due to their refractory nature, and those elements which are usually present in high enough concentrations to remain relatively unaffected, eg: Cu, Pb and Sb. Due to the nature of the coin alloy it is not possible to link the gold used in the coins studied here with gold deposits, as the large amounts of Ag and Cu, added to the coin alloys, have masked the Au signature. However, further Pb isotopic analyses of gold deposits should prove useful in determining from which regions Celtic gold was derived.
Role in routing to the plasma membrane of the L 0 domain of the multidrug resistance protein MRP1
(2003)
Die mehrfache Chemotherapieresistenz (Multidrug Resistance) beruht auf vermehrtem Transport von Xenobiotika aus der Zelle, was zu einer dramatischen Verringerung der intrazellulären Konzentration von chemotherapeutischen Substanzen führt. Dieser Effekt wird von transmembranen Transporter-Proteinen der ABC-Familie verursacht. Zu dieser Familie gehört MRP1, die eine große Vielfalt an Substraten transportieren kann. MRP1 ist ein 190 kDa Glykoprotein mit einer vermuteten Topologie, die zusätzlich zum typischen P-gp ähnlichen Kern (Delta MRP1) eine amino-proximale transmembrane Domäne aufweist, die aus fünf transmembranen Alpha-Helices besteht. Sie ist durch einen cytoplasmatischen Verbindungs-Loop (L0) mit Delta MRP1 verbunden. Wenn MRP1 in polarisierten Zellen exprimiert wird, wird es zu der basolateralen Membran geleitet. In der vorliegenden Arbeit sollte nun die Funktion des amino-terminalen Bereichs von MRP1, der aus der ersten transmembranen Domäne TMD0 und dem cytoplasmischen Verbindungs-Loop L0 besteht, durch Expression und Koexpression von diversen MRP1 Mutanten in polarisierten MDCKII Zellen untersucht werden. Es wurde gezeigt, dass in der L0 Region eine amphipathische Helix vorhanden ist, die für die Funktionalität der MRP1 notwendig ist; dass das isolierte L0-Peptid in der Lage ist, sich mit Delta MRPI zu assoziieren (dadurch erlangt das Protein wieder seine Funktion und lokalisiert sich in der basolateralen Membrane); dass TMD0L0 sich teilweise in der basolaterale Membrane befindet und dass seine Anwesenheit genügt, um die Glycosilierung (Fig. 4.17 in der Dissertation) und die Lokalisierung in der basolateralen Membrane des Delta MRP1 zu ermöglichen (Fig. 4.18 in der Dissertation); dass die Koexpression der zwei komplementären Fragmente eine wild-type-ähnliche Transportaktivität ergibt (Fig. 4.19 in der Dissertation) und dass die beiden Fragmente interagieren (Fig. 4.21 in der Dissertation). Es wurde ausserdem ein chimerisches Protein hergestellt, welches aus TMD0 von MRP1 und L0 von MRP2 besteht und in MDCKII und MDCKII-Delta MRP1 Zellen exprimiert. Es wurde festgestellt, dass das unvollständig glycosiliert ist (Fig. 4.24 in der Dissertation) und dass es sich im endoplasmatischen Reticulum lokalisiert (Fig. 425 in der Dissertation).
In dieser Arbeit wurde der chemische Ozonverlust in der arktischen Stratosphäre über elf Jahre hinweg, zwischen 1991 und 2002, mit Hilfe der so genannten "Ozon-Tracer Korrelationstechnik" (TRAC), untersucht. Bei dieser Methode werden Korrelationen zwischen Ozon und langlebigen Spurenstoffen im Verlauf des Winters im Polarwirbels beobachtet und so der jährliche akkumulierte Ozonverlust berechnet. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit basieren im wesentlichen auf Messdaten der Satelliteninstrumente: HALOE (Halogen Occultation Experiment) auf UARS (Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite) und ILAS (Improved Limb Atmospheric Spectrometer) Instrument auf ADEOS (Advanced Earth Observing Satellite). Das HALOE Instrument misst seit Oktober 1991 kontinuierlich alle zwei bis drei Monate für einige Tage in höheren nördlichen Breiten. ILAS lieferte ausschließlich für den Winter 1996-97 Messungen, die über sieben Monate hinweg in hohen Breiten aufgenommen wurden. Aufgrund der eingeführten Erweiterungen und Verbesserungen der Methode in dieser Arbeit, konnte die Methode anhand einer detaillierten Studie für den Winter 1996-97 validiert werden. Die ILAS Messreihe wurde dazu verwendet, erstmals die Untersuchung der zeitlichen Entwicklung von Ozon-Tracer Korrelationen kontinuierlich für die gesamte Lebensdauer des Polarwirbels durchzuführen. Dabei wurden auch Korrelationen während der Bildung des Wirbels untersucht und im Besonderen mögliche Mischungsvorgänge zwischen Wirbelluft und Luftmassen außerhalb des Wirbels. Ausserdem wurde ein Vergleich der Ergebnisse von ILAS und HALOE Messdaten durchgeführt und Unterschiede in den Ergebnissen tiefgreifend analysiert. Basierend auf HALOE Messungen konnte die erweiterte TRAC Methode über elf Jahren hinweg angewendet werden. Damit war erstmals eine konsistente Analyse von Ozonverlust und Chloraktivierung über diesen Zeitraum möglich. Die Erweiterungen führten zu einer Verringerung und genauen Quantifizierung von Unsicherheiten der Ergebnisse. Ein deutlicher Zusammenhang zwischen meteorologischen Bedingungen, Chloraktivierung und dem chemischen Ozonverlust wurde deutlich. Weiterhin zeigte sich eine Abhängigkeit zwischen den meteorologischen Bedingungen und der Homogenität des Ozonverlustes innerhalb eines Winters, sowie der mögliche Einfluss von horizontaler Mischung auf Luftmassen in einem schwach ausgeprägten Polarwirbel. In dieser Arbeit wurde eine positive Korrelation zwischen den über die gesamte Lebensdauer des Wirbels auftretenden möglichen PSC-Flächen und den akkumulierten Ozonverlusten für die elf untersuchten Jahre deutlich. Es konnte darüber hinaus gezeigt werden, dass der Ozonverlust von deutlich mehr Einflüssen als nur von der Fläche möglichen PSC Auftretens bestimmt wird, sondern zum Beispiel von der Stärke der Sonneneinstrahlung abhängt. Außerdem lassen sich Auswirkungen von Vulkanausbrüchen, wie zum Beispiel im Jahr 1991 der des Mount Pinatubo, identifizieren.
Die Infrarotspektroskopie in Verbindung mit photoaktivierbaren Substraten wurde zur Untersuchung von Substrat-Protein-Wechselwirkungen eingesetzt. Dabei wurden Konformationsänderungen der Ca2+-ATPase des Sarkoplasmatischen Retikulums bei Bindung des Nukleotids, der Phosphorylierung der ATPase und der Hydrolyse des Phosphoenzyms beobachtet. Verwender wurden das native Substrat ATP und seine Analoga ADP, AMPPNP, 2'-deoxyATP, 3'-deoxyATP, ITP, AMP, Pyrophosphat, Ribosetriphosphat und TNP-AMP beobachtet. Diese Analoga waren an spezifischen funktionellen Gruppen des Substrats ATP modifiziert. Modifikation der 2'- und 3'-OH Gruppe des Ribosetriphosphats, der beta- und gamma-Phosphatgruppe und der Aminogruppe des Adenins reduzieren das Ausmaß an bindungsinduzierten Konformationsänderungen. Ein besonders starker Effekt wird für die 3'-OH Gruppe und die Aminogruppe des Adenins beobachtet. Dies zeigt die strukturelle Empfindlichkeit des Nukleotid-ATPase Komplexes auf einzelne Wechselwirkungen zwischen dem Nukleotid und der ATPase. Die Wechselwirkungen einer bestimmten Ligandengruppe mit der ATPase hängen von Wechselwirkungen anderer Ligandengruppen mit die ATPase ab. Die TNP-AMP Bindung verursacht teilweise gegenläufige und kleinere Konformationsänderungen verglichen mit ATP. Die Bindungweise von TNP-AMP ist unterschiedlich zu der von ATP, AMPPNP und anderen Tri- und Diphosphat Nucleotiden. Die Phosphorylierung der ATPase wurde mit ITP und 2'-deoxyATP beobachtet. Ca2E1P wurde in gleichem Ausmaß mit ITP und 2'-deoxyATP wie mit ATP akkumuliert, obwohl das Ausmaß der Konformationsänderungen bei Ca2E1P-Bildung geringer ist. Änderungen der 2'- und 3'-OH des Ribosetriphosphats und der Aminogruppe des Adenins beeinflussen die Reaktionsgeschwindigkeit der Phosphorylierung der ATPase. Es gibt keine direkte Verbindung zwischen dem Ausmaß der Konformationsänderung bei Nukleotid- Bindung und der Rate der Phosphorylierung. Das volle Ausmaß der ATP-induzierten Konformationsänderung ist nicht zwingend für die Phosphorylierung. Die Konformationen von Ca2E1N und Ca2E1P hängen vom Nukleotid ab. Dies weist darauf hin, dass die Struktur von ATPase Zuständen heterogener ist, als bisher erwartet. Die Aussagekraft und der Reichtum an Informationen in den Infrarotspektren zeigen, dass hiermit eine leistungsfähige Methode für die Untersuchung von Enzym-Substrat-Wechsel-Wirkungen und das räumliche Abtasten von Bindungstaschen zur Verfügung steht.
In this study we investigated the regulation of IL-18BPa by IFN-y in the context of colon cancer and human autoimmune diseases. IL-18BPa is a naturally occuring inhibitor that counteracts IL-18 bioactivity. By enhancing IFN-y production IL-18 has been introduced as pivotal mediator of TH1 immune responses. Indeed, many IL-18 effects are mediated by IFN-y. IL-18 bioactivity is connected with the pathogenesis of different inflammatory diseases, for instance, septic shock, colitis, Crohn's disease, myasthenia gravis, multiple sclerosis, rheumatoid arthritis, atherosclerosis, and organ transplant rejection. In addition, IL-18 has tumor-suppressive properties. IFN-y induced IL-18BPa expression was shown on protein and mRNA level in different colon carcinoma cell lines, organ cultures of colonic intestinal biopsy specimens, HaCaT keratinocytes as well as rheumatoid arthritis fibroblastlike synoviocytes (RA-FLS). The IFN-y-mediated induction of IL-18BPa appears to be a more general phenomenom. The capability of IFN-y to induce IL-18BPa also has been confirmed on the promoter level by performing luciferase reporter gene studies with two IL- 18BP promoter fragments. A GAS-site proximal to the transcription start site has been identified to be relevant for IFN-y-mediated induction of these two IL18BP promoter fragments. The induction of IL-18BPa is most likely mediated by STAT-1 in DLD-1 colon carcinoma cells. Sodium butyrate inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression in these cells. On the basis of our observations, we postulate a negative feedback mechanism, by which IFN-y-dependent and -independent IL-18 action might be counterregulated. In this model sodium butyrate is an additional player, that may interrupt the postulated negative feedback loop. A coculture system was performed to simulate an inflammatory TH1 response. This model which is more close to the in vivo situation, confirmed upregulation of IL-18BPa by endogenously produced IFN-y. The role of IL-18BPa is manifold and depends on IL-18 function in each particular case. In autoimmune diseases, for instance, which are often characterized by a TH1 polarized immune response, IL-18BPa might counterregulate IL-18 and/or IL-18-induced IFN-y bioactivity. Important examples are Crohn's disease and rheumatoid arthritis. In CD therapeutic use of IL-18BPa may therefore restore a hypothetically disturbed IL-18/IL-18BP balance. Concerning RA, IL-18BPa expression might contribute to protective functions of IFN-y, observed in different murine models for arthritis and in rheumatoid arthritis patients. Moreover, IL-18BPa might inhibit IL-18-mediated induction of subsequent cardinal inflammatory cytokines responsible for the pathogenesis of these diseases. Indeed, the pharmaceutical industry successfully used IL-18BP as therapeutic agent in a murine model of RA and in phase I clinical trials. On the contrary, in the context of carcinogenesis IFN-y- mediated IL-18BPa expression might be disadvantageous. By counterregulating the IL-18 arm of immune defenses against tumors, IL-18BP may have the potential to promote carcinogenesis. Our hypothesis is underlined by the observation that sodium butyrate, known to be protective in colon cancer, inhibited IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression. In parallel, IL-18-induced IFN-y is also responsible for iNOS induction. iNOS-derived NO provides a second possible way for inhibition of IFN-y-dependent and -independent tumor suppressive effects of IL-18. Finally, IFN-y-induced IL-18BPa expression was confirmed on the promoter level. This induction on the promoter level was associated with STAT-1 binding to the GAS element proximal to the start of transcription. It is tempting to speculate that blockage of the cytokine cascade upstream of IL-1 and TNF- a on the level of IL-18 may be of therapeutic benefit. Our data reflect the relationship between inflammation and cancer, in that inflammatory cells and cytokines found in tumors are likely to contribute to tumor growth, progression, and immunosuppression than they are to mount an effective host antitumour response.