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We conducted measurements of the five important short-lived organic bromine species in the marine boundary layer (MBL). Measurements were made in the Northern Hemisphere mid-latitudes (Sylt Island, North Sea) in June 2009 and in the tropical Western Pacific during the TransBrom ship campaign in October 2009. For the one-week time series on Sylt Island, mean mixing ratios of CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl were 2.0, 1.1, 0.2, 0.1 ppt, respectively. We found maxima of 5.8 and 1.6 ppt for the two main components CHBr3 and CH2Br2. Along the cruise track in the Western Pacific (between 41° N and 13° S) we measured mean mixing ratios of 0.9, 0.9, 0.2, 0.1 and 0.1 ppt for CHBr3, CH2Br2, CHBrCl2, CHBr2Cl and CH2BrCl. Air samples with coastal influence showed considerably higher mixing ratios than the samples with open ocean origin. Correlation analyses of the two data sets yielded strong linear relationships between the mixing ratios of four of the five species (except for CH2BrCl). Using a combined data set from the two campaigns and a comparison with the results from two former studies, rough estimates of the molar emission ratios between the correlated substances were: 9/1/0.35/0.35 for CHBr3/CH2Br2/CHBrCl2/CHBr2Cl. Additional measurements were made in the tropical tropopause layer (TTL) above Teresina (Brazil, 5° S) in June 2008, using balloon-borne cryogenic whole air sampling technique. Near the level of zero clear-sky net radiative heating (LZRH) at 14.8 km about 2.25 ppt organic bromine was bound to the five short-lived species, making up 13% of total organic bromine (17.82 ppt). CH2Br2 (1.45 ppt) and CHBr3 (0.56 ppt) accounted for 90% of the budget of short-lived compounds in that region. Near the tropopause (at 17.5 km) organic bromine from these substances was reduced to 1.35 ppt, with 1.07 and 0.12 ppt attributed to CH2Br2 and CHBr3, respectively.
We study how species richness of arthropods relates to theories concerning net primary productivity, ambient energy, water-energy dynamics and spatial environmental heterogeneity. We use two datasets of arthropod richness with similar spatial extents (Scandinavia to Mediterranean), but contrasting spatial grain (local habitat and country). Samples of ground-dwelling spiders, beetles, bugs and ants were collected from 32 paired habitats at 16 locations across Europe. Species richness of these taxonomic groups was also determined for 25 European countries based on the Fauna Europaea database. We tested effects of net primary productivity (NPP), annual mean temperature (T), annual rainfall (R) and potential evapotranspiration of the coldest month (PETmin) on species richness and turnover. Spatial environmental heterogeneity within countries was considered by including the ranges of NPP, T, R and PETmin. At the local habitat grain, relationships between species richness and environmental variables differed strongly between taxa and trophic groups. However, species turnover across locations was strongly correlated with differences in T. At the country grain, species richness was significantly correlated with environmental variables from all four theories. In particular, species richness within countries increased strongly with spatial heterogeneity in T. The importance of spatial heterogeneity in T for both species turnover across locations and for species richness within countries suggests that the temperature niche is an important determinant of arthropod diversity. We suggest that, unless climatic heterogeneity is constant across sampling units, coarse-grained studies should always account for environmental heterogeneity as a predictor of arthropod species richness, just as studies with variable area of sampling units routinely consider area.
Sesquiterpenes (C15H24) are semi-volatile organic compounds emitted by vegetation and are of interest in atmospheric research because they influence the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere and contribute to the formation of secondary organic aerosols. However, little is known about their emission pattern and no established parameterisation is available for global emission models. The aim of this study is to investigate a Central European spruce forest and its emission response to meteorological and environmental parameters, looking for a parameterisation that incorporates heat and oxidative stress as the main driving forces of the induced emissions. Therefore, a healthy ca. 80 yr old Norway spruce (Picea abies) tree was selected and a dynamical vegetation enclosure technique was applied from April to November 2011. The emissions clearly responded to temperature changes with small variations in the β-factor along the year (βspring = 0.09 ± 0.01, βsummer = 0.12 ± 0.02, βautumn = 0.11 ± 0.02). However, daily calculated values revealed a vast amount of variability in temperature dependencies ((0.02 ± 0.002) < β < (0.27 ± 0.04)) with no distinct seasonality.
By separating the complete dataset in 10 different ozone regimes, we found that in moderately or less polluted atmospheric conditions the main driving force of sesquiterpene emissions is the temperature, but when ambient ozone mixing ratios exceed a critical threshold of (36.6 ± 3.9) ppbv, the emissions become primarily correlated with ozone. Considering the complete dataset, cross correlation analysis resulted in highest correlation with ambient ozone mixing ratios (CCO3 = 0.63 ± 0.01; CCT = 0.47 ± 0.02 at t = 0 h for temperature) with a time shift 2–4 h prior to the emissions. An only temperature dependent algorithm was found to substantially underestimate the induced emissions (20% of the measured; R2 = 0.31). However, the addition of an ozone dependent term improved substantially the fitting between measured and modelled emissions (81% of the modelled emissions could be explained by the measurements; R2 = 0.63), providing confidence about the reliability of the suggested parameterisation for the spruce forest site investigated.
Sesquiterpenes (C15H24) are semi-volatile organic compounds emitted by vegetation and are of interest in atmospheric research because they influence the oxidative capacity of the atmosphere and contribute to the formation of secondary organic aerosols. However, little is known about their emission pattern and no established parameterization is available for global emission models. The aim of this study is to investigate a Central European spruce forest and its emission response to meteorological and environmental parameters, looking for a parameterization that incorporates heat and oxidative stress as the main driving forces of the induced emissions. Therefore, a healthy ca. 80 yr old Norway spruce (Picea abies) tree was selected and a dynamical vegetation enclosure technique was applied from April to November 2011. The emissions clearly responded to temperature changes with small variations in the β-factor along the year (βspring=0.09 ± 0.01, βsummer=0.12 ± 0.02, βautumn=0.11 ± 0.02). However, daily calculated values revealed a vast amount of variability in temperature dependencies ((0.02 ± 0.002)< β<(0.27 ± 0.04)) with no distinct seasonality.
By separating the complete dataset in 10 different ozone regimes, we found that in moderately or less polluted atmospheric conditions the main driving force of sesquiterpene emissions is the temperature, but when ambient ozone mixing ratios exceed a~critical threshold of (36.6 ± 3.9) ppbv, the emissions become primarily correlated with ozone. Considering the complete dataset, cross correlation analysis resulted in highest correlation with ambient ozone mixing ratios (CCO3=0.63 ± 0.01; CCT=0.47 ± 0.02 at t=0 h for temperature) with a time shift 2–4 h prior to the emissions. An only temperature dependent algorithm was found to substantially underestimate the induced emissions (20 % of the measured; R2=0.31). However, the addition of an ozone dependent term improved substantially the fitting between measured and modeled emissions (81 % of the measured; R2=0.63), providing confidence about the reliability of the suggested parameterization for the spruce forest site investigated.
The theoretical basis for the link between the leaf exchange of carbonyl sulfide (COS), carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O) and the assumptions that need to be made in order to use COS as a tracer for canopy net photosynthesis, transpiration and stomatal conductance, are reviewed. The ratios of COS to CO2 and H2O deposition velocities used to this end are shown to vary with the ratio of the internal to ambient CO2 and H2O mole fractions and the relative limitations by boundary layer, stomatal and internal conductance for COS. It is suggested that these deposition velocity ratios exhibit considerable variability, a finding that challenges current parameterizations, which treat these as vegetation-specific constants. COS is shown to represent a better tracer for CO2 than H2O. Using COS as a tracer for stomatal conductance is hampered by our present poor understanding of the leaf internal conductance to COS. Estimating canopy level CO2 and H2O fluxes requires disentangling leaf COS exchange from other ecosystem sources/sinks of COS. We conclude that future priorities for COS research should be to improve the quantitative understanding of the variability in the ratios of COS to CO2 and H2O deposition velocities and the controlling factors, and to develop operational methods for disentangling ecosystem COS exchange into contributions by leaves and other sources/sinks. To this end, integrated studies, which concurrently quantify the ecosystem-scale CO2, H2O and COS exchange and the corresponding component fluxes, are urgently needed.
We investigate the potential of carbonyl sulfide (COS) for being used as a tracer for canopy net photosynthesis, transpiration and stomatal conductance by examining the theoretical basis of the link between leaf COS, carbon dioxide (CO2) and water vapour (H2O) exchange. Our analysis identifies several limitations that need to be overcome to this end, however at present we lack appropriate ecosystem-scale field measurements for assessing their practical significance. It however appears that COS represents a better tracer for CO2 than H2O. Concurrent measurements of ecosystem scale COS, CO2 and H2O exchange are advocated.
The mantle xenoliths collected by kimberlites indicate that the subcratonic mantle underneath the Archean crust is mostly a residue of high degrees of partial melting which was subsequently reenriched. The majority of the xenoliths show cryptic metasomatism and only few modal metasomatism.
Much effort has been put into deciphering different kinds of enrichment processes within the mantle. Here, we take the approach to look into the inventory of subcalcic garnets which stem from cpx-free harzburgites and dunites. These subcalcic garnets, commonly with sinusoidal REE patterns, carry the major budget of the trace elements of their host rock. Thus, they are promising objects to study both depletion and enrichment. Most importantly, the analysis of a single grain subcalcic garnetwill provide almost all important information of the bulk rock. Our aim is to gain detailed information mainly on metasomatism on a craton wide scale by combining major, trace elements and Lu-Hf and Sm-Nd isotopic signatures from subcalcic garnets. Eventually, we will summarize the metasomatic agent(s) and processes and possibly the timing of the enrichment within the lithospheric mantle underneath the Kaapvaal craton.
In dieser Arbeit werden Schmelz- und Anreicherungsprozesse des Erdmantels, sowie Kristallisationsereignisse der Erdkruste zweier ausgewählter Gebiete in Namibia und Spanien mithilfe geochemischer Methoden rekonstruiert und in einen zeitlichen Zusammenhang gebracht. Ein Vergleich der gewonnenen Ergebnisse beider Kompartimente soll dabei weitere Informationen liefern inwieweit Prozesse des Erdmantels und der Erdkruste miteinander verknüpft waren. Insbesondere soll ein weitere Beitrag zur aktuellen Diskussion geliefert werden, bei der sich das sogenannte „pulsed growth“ und „steady accumulation“ Modell gegenüberstehen (siehe Zusammenstellung Pearson et al., 2007). Zudem tragen die neu gewonnenen Daten dazu bei, die regionalen geologischen Gegebenheiten im besonderen Hinblick auf die geotektonische Geschichte besser zu verstehen.
Das Gibeon Kimberlit Feld befindet sich in der tektonischen Einheit des Rehoboth Terranes in Namibia und ist gekennzeichnet von Vulkanismus vor etwa 72.5 Ma (Davies et al., 2001), der Granat Peridotite und krustale Xenolithe mit an die Oberfläche beförderte. Eine klare Einordnung des Rehoboth Terranes in die Gesamtheit des Süd Afrikanischen Plattenverbunds ist noch nicht vollständig geklärt.
Die Südöstliche vulkanische Provinz in Spanien (SEVP) mit besonderem Hinblick auf die Region um Casas de Tallante stellt das zweite Probengebiet für diese Arbeit dar. Vor etwa 2.6 Ma (Bellon et al., 1983) kam es zur Extrusion von alkali-basaltischen Schmelzen, die zahlreiche Spinell / Plagioklas Peridotite mit sich brachten. Tufflagen, sowie die Matrix der Basalte ermöglichen einen Einblick in die untere Kruste der Region.
Untersuchungen der Erdmantelproben aus Namibia auf ihre Haupt- und Spurenelementchemie, sowie Lu-Hf und Sm-Nd Isotopie zeigten, dass zwei verschiedene Manteltypen vorliegen („N“ und „σ“ Typ), die zu einem Zeitpunkt um etwa 850 Ma („N“) und 1.9 Ga („σ“) angereichert wurden. Eine letzte Anreicherung beider Typen fand vermutlich während der Pan–Afrikanischen Orogenese um etwa 450 Ma statt. Die Reinterpretation eines zuvor publizierten Datensatzes (Pearson et al., 2004), suggeriert, dass es zu einer ersten Verarmung der σ Peridotite um etwa 2.9 Ga kam.
Untersuchungen der U-Pb und Hf Isotopie an Zirkonen aus der unteren Kruste des Probengebiets in Namibia ergaben, dass es zur Bildung von juvenilem Krustenmaterial vermutlich bereits im Archaikum kam (wie bereits vorgeschlagen durch z.B. Hoal et al., 1995; Franz et al., 1996), sowie in den Zeiträumen von 2.3 bis 2.7 und 1.5 bis 1.6 Ga, mit jeweils anschließendem krustalem Recycling und Krustenmischung. Eine Übereinstimmung von Mantel- und Krustenevents konnte für die Zeiträume von etwa 1.8, 0.8 - 0.9 Ga und 0.4 – 0.5 Ga gefunden werden. Eine mögliche erste Verarmung des σ Mantels wird bestätigt durch Zirkonalter im Bereich von 2.7 bis 2.9 Ga.
Die Analyse ausgewählter Spinell / Plagioklas Peridotite aus der SEVP, ergaben, dass ein heterogener Mantel mit mindestens 3 verschiedenen Typen vorliegt. Eine Korrelation der Lu-Hf Isotopie von 3 Proben dieses Probensatzes, sowie den Hf Isotopien einer weiteren Probe von Bianchini et al. (2011) suggerieren, dass es eventuell zu einem Verarmungsereignis zu einem Zeitpunkt von etwa 550 Ma kam. Sr Isotopien von Klinopyroxenen und Plagioklasen im Vergleich ergaben, dass die Sr Isotopie der Plagioklase, im Gegensatz zu den Klinopyroxenen, von denen der Alkali Basalte überprägt wurden.
Zirkonanalysen aus Lokalitäten innerhalb der SEVP (U-Pb, Hf) ergaben ein weitreichendes Altersspektrum, beginnend bei etwa 2-3 Ma bis hin ins Archaikum (2.7 bis 2.9 Ga) mit Provenance Ursprung aus Gondwana und dem Arabisch-Nubischen Schild. Die Kombination der U-Pb Altersinformationen mit den entsprechenden Hf Isotopien, zeigten, dass es vermutlich bereits im Archaikum zu juveniler Krustenbildung kam. Zirkone > 100 µm datieren den Zeitpunkt der Eruption der Alkali Basalte mit Altern um etwa 2.6 Ma und Hf Isotopien, die einem leicht verarmten Mantel entsprechen. Ein mögliches Verarmungsereignis im Erdmantel zu einem Zeitpunkt von etwa 550 Ma, ist im Einklang mit Krustenrecycling zu selbigem Zeitpunkt.
Die neugewonnenen Daten dieser Arbeit unterstützten das „pulsed growth“ Modell.
Literatur
Bellon, H., Bordet, P. and Montenat, C., 1983. Chronology of the Neogene Magmatism from Betic Ranges (Southern Spain). Bulletin De La Societe Geologique De France, 25(2): 205-217.
Bianchini, G., Beccaluva, L., Nowell, G.M., Pearson, D.G. and Siena, F., 2011. Mantle xenoliths from Tallante (Betic Cordillera): Insights into the multi-stage evolution of the south Iberian lithosphere. Lithos, 124(3-4): 308-318.
Davies, G.R., Spriggs, A.J. and Nixon, P.H., 2001. A non-cognate origin for the Gibeon kimberlite megacryst suite, Namibia: Implications for the origin of Namibian kimberlites. Journal of Petrology, 42(1): 159-172.
Franz, L., Brey, G.P. and Okrusch, M., 1996b. Steady state geotherm, thermal disturbances, and tectonic development of the lower lithosphere underneath the Gibeon Kimberlite Province, Namibia. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology, 126(1-2): 181-198.
Hoal, B.G., Hoal, K.E.O., Boyd, F.R. and Pearson, D.G., 1995. Age constraints on crustal and mantle lithosphere beneath the Gibeon kimberlite field, Namibia. South African Journal of Geology, 98(2): 112-118.
Pearson, D.G., Irvine, G.J., Ionov, D.A., Boyd, F.R. and Dreibus, G.E., 2004. Re-Os isotope systematics and platinum group element fractionation during mantle melt extraction: a study of massif and xenolith peridotite suites. Chemical Geology, 208(1-4): 29-59.
Pearson, D.G., Parman, S.W. and Nowell, G.M., 2007. A link between large mantle melting events and continent growth seen in osmium isotopes. Nature, 449(7159): 202-205.
Die Wechselwirkung zwischen zwei verschiedenartigen Wellenphänomenen in einer Höhe von ca. 10 bis 100 km, der mittleren Atmosphäre, ist das zentrale Thema der vorliegenden Arbeit. Schwerewellen entstehen durch Oszillationen der Luft in einer stabil geschichteten Atmosphäre. Durch die Vielzahl von Schwerewellen-Paketen, die in der Troposphäre durch Gebirge, Gewitter, Fronten und andere dynamische Prozesse angeregt werden, wird Energie und Impuls in die mittleren Atmosphäre transportiert. Durch den turbulenten Zerfall von brechenden Schwerewellen wird auf die mittlere Strömung eine Kraft ausgeübt, welche im Bereich der Mesopause bei ca. 90 km maximal wird. Daraus resultiert die sogenannte interhemispherische residuelle Zirkulation, die in der Mesosphäre den Sommer- mit dem Winterpol verbindet und die beeindruckend kalte Sommer-Mesopause mit Temperaturen von unter −140°C verursacht. Thermische Gezeiten sind ein weiterer wichtiger Teil in der Dynamik der mittleren Atmosphäre. Sie werden durch die Erwärmung der Tagseite der Erde angeregt und sind globale Schwingungen mit Perioden von 24 Stunden und harmonischen Vielfachen. Mit Wind- und Temperatur-Amplituden von bis zu 50 m/s und 30 K dominieren sie die Tagesvariabilität im Mesopausen-Bereich.
In der Mesosphäre wird die Wechselwirkung zwischen Schwerewellen und thermischen Gezeiten wichtig. Dort wird durch die Gezeitenwinde das Brechen von Schwerewellen zeitlich moduliert und eine periodische Kraft erzeugt, welche auf die Gezeiten rückwirkt. Doch selbst unter Zuhilfenahme modernster Hochleistungsrechner kann in komplexen Zirkulationsmodellen nur ein Bruchteil des turbulenten sowie des Wellen-Spektrums aufgelöst werden. Der Effekt der nichtaufgelösten Skalen, wie Turbulenz und Schwerewellen, muss somit in effizienter Weise parametrisiert werden. Üblicherweise wird in Schwerewellen-Parametrisierungen die horizontale und zeitliche Variation des Hintergrundmediums vernachlässigt. Es entsteht eine vertikale Säule, in der sich stationäre Schwerewellen-Züge instantan nach oben ausbreiten. Es ist jedoch äußerst fraglich, inwieweit eine solche Beschreibung, auf der ein Großteil früherer Untersuchungen basiert, für das Ergründen der Schwerewellen-Gezeiten-Wechselwirkung hinreicht. Für diese Arbeit wurde deswegen das Ziel gesetzt, die Defizite der konventionellen Beschreibung der Schwerewellen-Ausbreitung in realistischen Gezeiten zu quantifizieren.
Die "Ray Tracing"-Methode wird auf die Problemstellung der Schwerewellen-Gezeiten-Wechselwirkung angewendet. In der "Ray Tracing"-Methode werden Schwerewellen-Pakete entlang ihrer Ausbreitungspfade explizit verfolgt und Veränderungen der Schwerewellen-Eigenschaften durch den Einfluss der Hintergrundströmung berücksichtigt. Vom Autor wurde das globale "Ray Tracing"-Modell RAPAGI (RAy PArameterization of Gravity-wave Impacts) entwickelt und mit realistischen Gezeitenfeldern aus dem Zirkulationsmodell HAMMONIA (HAmburg MOdel of the Neutral and Ionized Atmosphere) betrieben. In verschiedenen "Ray Tracing"-Experimenten wird für ein einfaches Schwerewellen-Ensemble gezeigt, wie horizontale Gradienten des Hintergrundmediums sowie dessen Zeitabhängigkeit wesentlichen Einfluss auf die Ausbreitung und Dissipation von Schwerewellen nehmen. Zum einen führt die durch Gezeitenwellen hervorgerufene Transienz zu einer tageszeitlichen Modulation der absoluten Schwerewellen-Frequenz.
Die dadurch induzierten Variationen der horizontalen Phasengeschwindigkeit der Schwerewellen können die anfängliche Phasengeschwindigkeit um bis zu eine Größenordnung übertreffen und folgen dem Verlauf des Hintergrundwindes. Die kritische Filterung von Schwerewellen wird durch diese Modulation abgeschwächt, was im Vergleich zu konventionellen Schwerewellen-Parametrisierungen zu einer im Mittel um 30 % geringeren Kraftwirkung auf die Gezeiten führt. Zum anderen werden durch horizontale Gradienten in der gesamten Hintergrundströmung Schwerewellen-Pakete horizontal abgelenkt. Wellen, die gegen die Hintergrundströmung laufen, werden in der Stratosphäre in die Maxima der Wind-Jets hineingeführt. Durch dieses Verhalten wird analog zum Fermatschen Prinzip der geometrischen Optik die Laufzeit der Schwerewellen in der mittleren Atmosphäre minimiert. Es entsteht eine Fokussierung von Schwerewellen-Feldern, bei gleichzeitiger Zunahme der horizontalen Wellenzahl in den Experimenten im Mittel um ca. 10 %. Dadurch reduziert sich der Schwerewellen-Impulsfluss und die mittlere und ebenfalls die periodische Kraft auf die Hintergrundströmung im Mittel um weitere 20 % bis 30 %. Konventionelle Schwerewellen-Parametrisierungen scheinen somit die Kraftwirkung von brechenden Schwerewellen zu uberschätzen. Aus den Ergebnissen der Arbeit wird klar, dass Schwerewellen-Parametrisierungen nicht "blind" für jede Untersuchung genutzt werden können. Alle Annahmen und Näherungen in Parametrisierungen müssen je nach Zielstellung neu getestet werden.
Holocene climate was characterised by variability on multi-centennial to multi-decadal time scales. In central Europe, these fluctuations were most pronounced during winter. Here we present a record of past winter climate variability for the last 10.8 ka based on four speleothems from Bunker Cave, western Germany. Due to its central European location, the cave site is particularly well suited to record changes in precipitation and temperature in response to changes in the North Atlantic realm. We present high-resolution records of δ18O, δ13C values and Mg/Ca ratios. Changes in the Mg/Ca ratio are attributed to past meteoric precipitation variability. The stable C isotope composition of the speleothems most likely reflects changes in vegetation and precipitation, and variations in the δ18O signal are interpreted as variations in meteoric precipitation and temperature. We found cold and dry periods between 8 and 7 ka, 6.5 and 5.5 ka, 4 and 3 ka as well as between 0.7 and 0.2 ka. The proxy signals in the Bunker Cave stalagmites compare well with other isotope records and, thus, seem representative for central European Holocene climate variability. The prominent 8.2 ka event and the Little Ice Age cold events are both recorded in the Bunker Cave record. However, these events show a contrasting relationship between climate and δ18O, which is explained by different causes underlying the two climate anomalies. Whereas the Little Ice Age is attributed to a pronounced negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation, the 8.2 ka event was triggered by cooler conditions in the North Atlantic due to a slowdown of the thermohaline circulation.
Holocene climate was characterised by variability on multi-centennial to multi-decadal time scales. In central Europe, these fluctuations were most pronounced during winter. Here we present a new record of past winter climate variability for the last 10.8 ka based on four speleothems from Bunker Cave, Western Germany. Due to its central European location, the cave site is particularly well suited to record changes in precipitation and temperature in response to changes in the North Atlantic realm. We present high resolution records of δ18O, δ13C values and Mg/Ca ratios. We attribute changes in the Mg/Ca ratio to variations in the meteoric precipitation. The stable C isotope composition of the speleothems most likely reflects changes in vegetation and precipitation and variations in the δ18O signal are interpreted as variations in meteoric precipitation and temperature. We found cold and dry periods between 9 and 7 ka, 6.5 and 5.5 ka, 4 and 3 ka as well as between 0.7 to 0.2 ka. The proxy signals in our stalagmites compare well with other isotope records and, thus, seem representative for central European Holocene climate variability. The prominent 8.2 ka event and the Little Ice Age cold events are both recorded in the Bunker cave record. However, these events show a contrasting relationship between climate and δ18O, which is explained by different causes underlying the two climate anomalies. Whereas the Little Ice Age is attributed to a pronounced negative phase of the North Atlantic Oscillation, the 8.2 ka event was triggered by cooler conditions in the North Atlantic due to a slowdown of the Thermohaline Circulation.